Vladimir's effigy on one ofhis coins. He is crowned in the Byzantine style, holding a cross-mounted staff in one hand and atrident (tryzub) in the other.
Born in 958, Vladimir was theillegitimate and youngest son ofSviatoslav I of Kiev by his housekeeperMalusha.[34] Malusha is described in theNorse sagas as a prophetess who lived to the age of 100 and was brought from her cave to the palace to predict the future. Malusha's brotherDobrynya was Vladimir's tutor and most trusted advisor. Hagiographic tradition of dubious authenticity also connects his childhood with the name of his grandmother,Olga of Kiev, who was Christian and governed the capital during Sviatoslav's frequent military campaigns.[35]
Transferring his capital toPereyaslavets, Sviatoslav designated Vladimir ruler ofNovgorod the Great in 970,[12] but gave Kiev to his legitimate sonYaropolk. After Sviatoslav's death at the hands of thePechenegs in 972, a fratricidal war erupted in 977 between Yaropolk and his younger brotherOleg, ruler of theDrevlians; Vladimir fled abroad and assembled a Varangian army to assist him in deposing Yaropolk,[36][17] against whom he marched on his return the next year. On his way to Kiev he sent ambassadors toRogvolod (Norse: Ragnvald), prince ofPolotsk, to sue for the hand of his daughterRogneda (Norse: Ragnhild). The high-born princess refused to affiance herself to the son of a bondswoman (and was betrothed to Yaropolk), so Vladimir attacked Polotsk, took Ragnhild by force, and put her parents to the sword.[34][37] Polotsk was a key fortress on the way to Kiev, and capturing it along withSmolensk facilitated the taking of Kiev in 978, where he slew Yaropolk by treachery and was proclaimedknyaz of allKievan Rus'.[38][13]
Vladimir continued to expand his territories beyond his father's extensive domain. In 981, he seized theCherven towns from theDuchy of Poland; in 981–982, he suppressed aVyatichi rebellion; in 983, he subdued theYatvingians; in 984, he conquered theRadimichs; and in 985, he conducted a military campaign against theVolga Bulgars,[39][40] planting numerous fortresses and colonies on his way.[34]
AlthoughChristianity had spread in the region under Oleg's rule, Vladimir had remained a thoroughgoing pagan, taking eight hundred concubines (along with numerous wives) and erecting pagan statues and shrines to gods.[41]
He may have attempted to reformSlavic paganism in an attempt to identify himself with the various gods worshipped by his subjects. He built a pagan temple on a hill in Kiev dedicated to six gods:Perun—the god of thunder and war, a god favored by members of the prince'sdruzhina (military retinue); Slavic godsStribog andDazhd'bog;Mokosh—a goddess representing Mother Nature "worshipped by Finnish tribes"; Khors andSimargl, "both of which had Iranian origins, were included, probably to appeal to thePoliane".[42]
Open abuse of the deities that most people in Rus' revered triggered widespread indignation.[clarification needed] A mob killed the Christian Fyodor and his son Ioann (later, after the overall Christianisation of Kievan Rus', people came to regard these two as the first Christian martyrs in Rus', and the Orthodox Church set a day to commemorate them, 25 July[43]). Immediately after said murder, early medieval Rus' saw persecutions against Christians, many of whom escaped or concealed their belief.[d]
However, Prince Vladimir mused over the incident long after, and not least for political considerations. According to the early Slavic chronicle, theTale of Bygone Years, which describes life in Kievan Rus' up to the year 1110, he sent his envoys throughout the world to assess first-hand the major religions of the time: Islam, Latin Christianity, Judaism, and Byzantine Christianity.[44] They were most impressed with their visit to Constantinople, saying, "We knew not whether we were in Heaven or on Earth ... We only know that God dwells there among the people, and their service is fairer than the ceremonies of other nations."[45]
Prince Vladimir chooses a religion in 988 – Johann Leberecht Eggink (1822).
ThePrimary Chronicle reports that in the year 986, missionaries from various peoples representing various religions arrived in Kiev, trying to convert Vladimir to their religion. In 987, after consultation with hisboyars, Vladimir reportedly sent envoys to study the religions of the various neighboring peoples whose representatives had been urging him to embrace their respective faiths. Although in both stories Vladimir ultimately rejects all options exceptEastern Christianity, he hesitates and does not convert.[46]
In 988, having taken the town ofChersonesus inCrimea, he allegedly boldly negotiated for the hand of emperorBasil II's sister,Anna.[47] Never before had aByzantine imperial princess, and one "born in the purple", married a barbarian, as matrimonial offers of French kings andHoly Roman Emperors had been peremptorily rejected. In short, to marry the 27-year-old princess to a pagan Slav seemed impossible. Vladimir was baptized at Chersonesos, however, taking the Christian name of Basil out of compliment to his imperial brother-in-law; the sacrament was followed by his wedding to Anna.
Arab sources, both Muslim and Christian, present a different story of Vladimir's conversion.Yahya of Antioch,al-Rudhrawari,al-Makin,al-Dimashqi, andibn al-Athir all give essentially the same account.[48] In 987,Bardas Sclerus andBardas Phocas revolted against the Byzantine emperor Basil II. Both rebels briefly joined forces, but then Bardas Phocas proclaimed himself emperor on 14 September 987. Basil II turned to the Kievan Rus' for assistance, even though they were considered enemies at that time. Vladimir agreed, in exchange for a marital tie; he also agreed to accept Christianity as his religion and to Christianize his people. When the wedding arrangements were settled, Vladimir dispatched 6,000 troops to the Byzantine Empire, and they helped to put down the revolt.[49]
Vladimir then formed a great council out of his boyars and set histwelve sons over his subject principalities.[34] According to thePrimary Chronicle, he founded the city ofBelgorod in 991. In 992, he went on a campaign against the Croats, most likely theWhite Croats that lived on the border of modernUkraine. This campaign was cut short by the attacks of thePechenegs on and aroundKiev.[52]
In 1014, his sonYaroslav the Wise stopped paying tribute. Vladimir decided to chastise the insolence of his son and began gathering troops against him. Vladimir fell ill, however, most likely of old age, and died at Berestove, near modern-day Kiev. The various parts of his dismembered body were distributed among his numerous sacred foundations and were venerated asrelics.[34]
During his Christian reign, Vladimir lived the teachings of the Bible through acts of charity. He would hand out food and drink to the less fortunate, and made an effort to go out to the people who could not reach him. His work was based on the impulse to help one's neighbors by sharing the burden of carrying their cross.[53] He founded numerous churches, including theDesyatynna Tserkva(Church, or Cathedral, of the Tithes) (989), established schools, protected the poor and introduced ecclesiastical courts. He lived mostly at peace with his neighbors, the incursions of the Pechenegs alone disturbing his tranquility.[34]
Yaroslav the Wise (no earlier than 983), Prince ofRostov[56] (988–1010), Prince of Novgorod (1010–1034), Grand Prince of Kiev (1016–1018, 1019–1054). He was likely a son ofAnna Porphyrogenita rather than Rogneda.[57][58] Another interesting fact is that he was younger than Sviatopolk according to the words ofBoris in theTale of Bygone Years and not as it was officially known. A later analysis of his skeletal remains also corroborates this view.[59]
Vsevolod (c. 984 – 1013), possibly the Swedish Prince Wissawald ofVolhynia (c. 1000), was perhaps the first husband ofEstrid Svendsdatter
Mstislav, distinct from Mstislav of Chernigov, possibly died as an infant, if he was ever born
Mstislav of Chernigov (born c. 983), Prince ofTmutarakan (990–1036), Prince ofChernigov (1024–1036), other sources claim him to be the son of other mothers (Adela,Malfrida, or some other Bulgarian wife)
Mstislava, in 1018 was taken byBolesław I Chrobry among the other daughters
Bulgarian Adela, some sources claim that Adela is not necessarily Bulgarian as Boris and Gleb may have been born from some other wife
Boris (born c. 986), Prince of Rostov (c. 1010 – 1015), remarkable is the fact that the Rostov Principality as well as the Principality ofMurom used to border the territory of theVolga Bolgars
Gleb (born c. 987), Prince of Murom (1013–1015), as is Boris, Gleb is also claimed to be the son ofAnna Porphyrogenita.[60]
Stanislav (born c. 985 – 1015), Prince of Smolensk (988–1015), possibly of another wife and the fate of whom is not certain
Sudislav (died 1063), Prince ofPskov (1014–1036), possibly of another wife, but he is mentioned inNikon's Chronicles. He spent 35 years in prison and later became a monk.
a granddaughter ofOtto the Great (possibly Rechlinda Otona [Regelindis])
Maria Dobroniega of Kiev (born c. 1012), the Duchess of Poland (1040–1087), married around 1040 toCasimir I the Restorer, Duke of Poland, her maternity as daughter of this wife is deduced from her apparent age
The townVolodymyr in north-western Ukraine was founded by Vladimir and is named after him.[63] The foundation of another town,Vladimir in Russia, is usually attributed toVladimir Monomakh. However some researchers argue that it was also founded by Vladimir the Great.[64]
The memory of Vladimir was also kept alive by innumerable Russian folk ballads and legends, which refer to him asKrasno Solnyshko (the Fair Sun, orthe Red Sun;Красно Солнышко in Russian). TheVarangian period of Eastern Slavic history ceases with Vladimir, and the Christian period begins.
The appropriation of Kievan Rus' as part of national history has also been a topic of contention inUkrainophile vs.Russophile schools of historiography since theSoviet era.[65] Today, he is regarded as a symbol in Belarus, Russia and Ukraine.
All branches of the economy prospered under Vladimir.[66] Heminted coins and regulated foreign affairs with other countries, such as trade, bringing inGreek wines,Baghdad spices, andArabian horses for the markets of Kiev.
^Volodiměrъ is an Old East Slavic form of the given name; this form was influenced and partially replaced by theOld Bulgarian (Old Church Slavonic) formVladiměrъ (by folk etymology later alsoVladimirъ; in modern East Slavic languages, the given name is renderedBelarusian:Уладзiмiр,Uladzimir,Russian:Владимир,Vladimir,Ukrainian:Володимир,Volodymyr. SeeVladimir for details.
^According to historian Donald Ostrowski (2017), Russian scholars tend to prefer "Vladimir", while Ukrainian scholars tend to prefer "Volodimer". However, "Volodimir" tends to occur as much in the primary sources as "Volodimer", and significantly more often than "Vladimir".[27]
^In 983, after another of his military successes, Prince Vladimir and his army thought it necessary to sacrifice human lives to the gods. A lot was cast and it fell on a youth, Ioann by name, the son of a Christian, Fyodor. His father stood firmly against his son being sacrificed to the idols. Further, he tried to show the pagans the futility of their faith: "Your gods are just plain wood: it is here now but it may rot into oblivion tomorrow; your gods neither eat, nor drink, nor talk and are made by human hand from wood; whereas there is only one God – He is worshiped by Greeks and He created heaven and earth; and your gods? They have created nothing, for they have been created themselves; never will I give my son to the devils!"[citation needed]
^Александров А. А. Ольгинская топонимика, выбутские сопки и руссы в Псковской земле // Памятники средневековой культуры. Открытия и версии. СПб., 1994. С. 22—31.
^Kovalenko, Volodymyr. "Young years of Volodymyr Svyatoslavych: the path to the Kyiv throne in the light of the theories of A. Adler – E. Erikson".Bulletin of the Chernihiv National Pedagogical University. Series: Historical Sciences.2015 (134):10–18.
^John Channon, Robert Hudson.The Penguin historical atlas of Russia. Viking. 1995. p. 23.
^"Although Christianity in Kiev existed before Vladimir's time, he had remained a pagan, accumulated about seven wives, established temples, and, it is said, taken part in idolatrous rites involving human sacrifice." (Encyclopædia Britannica)
^Janet, Martin (2007).Medieval Russia, 980–1584 (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 6.ISBN9780511811074.OCLC761647272.
^William Humphreys, "Agatha, mother of St. Margaret: the Slavic versus the Salian solutions – a critical overview",Foundations, 1(1):31–43; Joseph Edwards, "Editorial",Foundations, 1(2):74; William Humphreys, "Agatha ‘the Greek’ – Exploring the Slavic solution",Foundations, 1(4):275–288.
^Arrignon, Jean Pierre (1983).Les relations diplomatiques entre Bizance et la Russie de 860 à 1043.Revue des études slaves 55. pp. 133–135.
^abShepherd, Jonathan (2003). "Marriages Towards the Millennium". InMagdalino, Paul (ed.).Byzantium in the Year 1000. BRILL. pp. 25–26.ISBN978-90-04-12097-6. Retrieved January 27, 2013.
^Henryk Paszkiewicz.The making of the Russian nation. Greenwood Press. 1977. Cracow 1996, pp. 77–79.
^С. В. Шевченко (ред.).К вопросу о дате основания г. Владимира, ТОО "Местное время", 1992. (S. V. Shevchenko (ed.). On the foundation date of Vladimir. in Russian)
Golden, P. B. (2006) "Rus."Encyclopaedia of Islam (Brill Online). Eds.: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs. Brill.
Franklin, Simon (1991). "Ilarion's "Sermon on Law and Grace"".Sermons and Rhetoric of Kievan Rus'(PDF). University of Toronto (SLA 218 Ukrainian Literature and Culture). p. 30. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 15 March 2023. Retrieved6 March 2023.
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