TheVisigothic Kingdom,Visigothic Spain orKingdom of the Goths (Latin:Regnum Gothorum) was abarbarian kingdom that occupied what is now southwesternFrance and theIberian Peninsula from the 5th to the 8th century. One of theGermanic successor states to theWestern Roman Empire, it was originally created by the settlement of theVisigoths under KingWallia in the province ofGallia Aquitania in southwestGaul by the Roman government and then extended by conquest over all ofHispania. The Kingdom maintained independence from the Eastern Roman orByzantine Empire, whose attempts to re-establish Roman authority in Hispania were only partially successful and short-lived.
The Visigoths wereromanized central Europeans who had moved west from theDanube Valley.[4] They becamefoederati of Rome, and sought to restore the Roman order against the hordes ofVandals,Alans andSuebi. TheWestern Roman Empire fell in 476 AD; therefore, the Visigoths believed they had the right to take the territories that Rome had promised in Hispania in exchange for restoring the Roman order.[5] Under KingEuric—who eliminated the status of foederati—a triumphal advance of the Visigoths began.[6] Alarmed at Visigoth expansion fromAquitania aftervictory over the Gallo-Roman and Breton armies[7] atDéols in 469, Western EmperorAnthemius sent a fresh army across the Alps against Euric, who was besiegingArles. The Roman army was crushed at the nearbyBattle of Arles, resulting in Euric capturing Arles and secured much of southern Gaul.
Sometimes referred to as theRegnum Tolosae orKingdom of Toulouse after its capitalToulouse in modern historiography, the Visigothic kingdomlost much of its territory in Gaul to theFranks in the early 6th century, except the narrow coastal strip ofSeptimania. The kingdom of the 6th and 7th centuries is sometimes called theRegnum Toletanum orKingdom of Toledo after the new capital ofToledo in Hispania. A civil war starting in 549 resulted in an invitation from the VisigothAthanagild, who had usurped the kingship, to the Byzantine emperorJustinian I to send soldiers to his assistance. Athanagild won the war, but the Byzantines took overCartagena and a good deal of southern Hispania, until 624 whenSwinthila expelled the last Byzantine garrisons from the peninsula, occupyingOrcelis, which the Visigoths calledAurariola, what is todayOrihuela in theProvince of Alicante. Starting in the 570s Athanagild's brotherLiuvigild compensated for this loss by conquering theKingdom of the Suebi inGallaecia, which corresponds roughly to present-dayGalicia and the northern part ofPortugal, and annexing it, and by repeated campaigns against theBasques.
The ethnic distinction between the Hispano-Roman population and the Visigoths had largely disappeared by this time, with theGothic language losing its last and probably already declining function as a church language when the Visigoths renouncedArianism in 589.[8] This newfound unity found expression in increasingly severe persecution of outsiders,especially the Jews. TheVisigothic Code, completed in 654, abolished the old tradition of having different laws for Hispano-Romans and for Visigoths. The 7th century saw many civil wars between factions of the aristocracy. Despite good records left by contemporary bishops, such asIsidore andLeander of Seville, it becomes increasingly difficult to distinguish Goths from Hispano-Romans, as the two became inextricably intertwined. Despite these civil wars, by 625 AD the Visigoths had succeeded in expelling the Byzantines from Hispania and had established a foothold at the port ofCeuta in Africa. Most of the Visigothic Kingdom wasconquered by Umayyad troops fromNorth Africa in 711 to 719, with only the northern reaches of Hispania remaining in Christian hands. The medievalKingdom of Asturias in northern Spain reputedly began when a Visigothic nobleman calledPelagius was electedprinceps and became the leader of theAstures and of the Visigoths who had taken refuge in the mountains.
The Visigoths and their early kings followedArian Christianity. This led to conflict with the Church in Rome. After their conversion toNicene Christianity, the Church exerted an enormous influence on secular affairs through theCouncils of Toledo. The Visigoths also developed the highly influential legal code known in Western Europe as theVisigothic Code (Latin:Liber Iudiciorum), which would become the basis forSpanish law throughout theMiddle Ages.
Visigothic settlement and the Iberian Peninsula, c. 418
From 407 to 409 AD, an alliance of (East) GermanicVandals, IranianAlans and (Elbe) GermanicSuebicrossed the frozenRhine and swept across modern France and into the Iberian Peninsula. For their part, the Visigoths underAlaric famouslysacked Rome in 410, capturingGalla Placidia, the sister of Western Roman emperorHonorius.
Athaulf (king of the Visigoths from 410 to 415) spent the next few years operating in the Gallic and Hispanic countrysides, diplomatically playing competing factions of Germanic and Roman commanders against one another to skillful effect, and taking over cities such asNarbonne andToulouse (in 413). After he married Placidia, the EmperorHonorius enlisted him to provide Visigothic assistance in regaining nominal Roman control of Hispania from the Vandals, Alans and Suebi.
In 418, Honorius rewarded his Visigothicfederates under KingWallia (reigned 415–418) by giving them land in theGaronne valley ofGallia Aquitania on which to settle. This probably took place under the system ofhospitalitas. It seems likely that at first the Visigoths were not given a large amount of land estates in the region (as previously believed), but that they acquired the taxes of the region, with the local Gallic aristocrats now paying their taxes to the Visigoths instead of to the Roman government.[9]
The Visigoths with their capital atToulouse, remainedde facto independent, and soon began expanding into Roman territory at the expense of the feeble Western empire. UnderTheodoric I (418–451), the Visigoths attackedArles (in425[10] and 430[11]) andNarbonne (in 436),[11] but were checked byLitorius usingHunnic mercenaries. This resulted at first in Theodoric's defeat at theBattle of Narbonne in 436, but then in 439 at theBattle of Toulouse the Visigoths defeated the allied forces of Romans and Huns. By 451, the situation had reversed and the Huns had invadedGaul; now Theodoric fought underFlavius Aetius againstAttila the Hun in theBattle of the Catalaunian Plains. Attila was driven back, but Theodoric was killed in the battle.[12]
TheVandals completed theconquest ofNorth Africa when theytook Carthage on October 19, 439, and theSuebi had taken most of Hispania. The Roman emperorAvitus now sent the Visigoths into Hispania.Theodoric II (453–466)invaded and defeated the king of the Suebi,Rechiarius, at the battle on the riverÓrbigo in 456 near Asturica Augusta (Astorga) and then sacked Bracara Augusta (Braga), the Suebi capital. The Goths sacked the cities in Gallaecia, part of the Suebi Kingdom quite brutally: they massacred a portion of the population and even attacked some holy places, probably due to the clergy's support of the Suebi.[13] Theodoric took control overHispania Baetica,Carthaginiensis and southernLusitania. In 461, the Goths received the city of Narbonne from the emperorLibius Severus in exchange for their support. This led to a revolt by the army and byGallo-Romans under Aegidius; as a result, Romans under Severus and the Visigoths fought other Roman troops, and the revolt ended only in 465.[14]
In 466,Euric, who was the youngest son ofTheodoric I, came to the Visigothic throne. He is infamous for murdering his elder brotherTheodoric II who had himself become king by murdering his elder brotherThorismund. Under Euric (466–484), the Visigoths began expanding in Gaul and consolidating their presence in the Iberian peninsula. Euric fought a series of wars with theSuebi, who retained some influence in Lusitania, and brought most of this region under Visigothic power, taking Emerita Augusta (Mérida) in 469. Euric also attacked the Western Roman Empire, capturingHispania Tarraconensis in 472, the last bastion of (Western) Roman rule in Spain. By 476, he had extended his rule to theRhone and theLoire rivers which comprised most of southern Gaul. He also occupied the key Roman cities ofArles andMarseille. In his campaigns, Euric had counted on a portion of the Gallo-Roman and Hispano-Roman aristocracy who served under him as generals and governors. The Visigothic Kingdom was formally recognized as an independent kingdom in former Roman territory instead of having the status offoederati when the Western emperorJulius Nepos (474–475) signed in 475 an alliance with Euric, granting him the lands south of the Loire and west of the Rhone in exchange for military service and the lands inProvence (including Arles and Marseille). The lands in Hispania remained underde facto Visigothic control. AfterOdoacer deposed the last Roman emperor in the West,Romulus Augustulus, Euric quickly recapturedProvence, a fact which Odoacer formally accepted in a treaty.[15]
By 500, the Visigothic Kingdom, centered atToulouse, controlledGallia Aquitania andGallia Narbonensis and most of Hispania with the exception of theSuebic Kingdom of Galicia in the northwest and small areas controlled by independent Iberian peoples, such as theBasques and theCantabrians. Euric's sonAlaric II (484–507) issued a new body of laws, theBreviarium Alarici, and held a church council atAgde.
Clovis I fights the Visigoths
The Visigoths now came into conflict with the Franks under their KingClovis I, who had conquered northern Gaul. Following a brief war with the Franks, Alaric was forced to put down a rebellion in Tarraconensis, probably caused by recent Visigoth immigration to Hispania due to pressure from the Franks. In 507, the Franks attacked again, this time allied with theBurgundians. Alaric II was killed at theBattle of Campus Vogladensis (Vouillé) nearPoitiers, and Toulouse was sacked. By 508, the Visigoths had lost most of their Gallic holdings saveSeptimania in the south.[16]
After Alaric II's death, his illegitimate sonGesalec took power until he was deposed byTheodoric the Great, ruler of theOstrogothic Kingdom, who invaded and defeated him atBarcelona. Gesalec fled and regrouped, but was defeated again atBarcelona, and was captured and killed. Theodoric then installed his grandsonAmalaric (511–531), the son of Alaric II, as king. Amalaric, however, was still a child and power in Spain remained under the Ostrogothic general and regent,Theudis. Only after Theodoric's death (526) did Amalaric obtain control of his kingdom. His rule did not last long, as in 531, Amalaric was defeated by the Frankish kingChildebert I and then murdered at Barcelona.
Afterwards,Theudis (531–548) became king. He expanded Visigothic control over the southern regions, but he was also murdered after a failed invasion of Africa. Visigothic Spain suffered a civil war under KingAgila I (549–554), which prompted the Roman/Byzantine emperorJustinian I to send an army and carve out the small province ofSpania for theByzantine Empire along the coast of southern Spain. Agila was eventually killed, and his enemyAthanagild (552–568) became the new king. He attacked the Byzantines, but he was unable to dislodge them from southern Spain and was obliged to formally acknowledge thesuzerainty of the Empire.
Visigothic Hispania and the Byzantine province of Spania, circa 560 AD
The next Visigothic king wasLiuvigild (569 – April 21, 586). He was an effective military leader and consolidated Visigothic power in Spain. Liuvigild campaigned against the Eastern Romans in the south in the 570s and he took backCordova after another revolt. He also fought in the north against theGalician Kingdom of the Suebi and various small independent states, including the Basques and the Cantabrians. He pacified northern Spain but was unable to completely conquer these peoples. When Liuvigild established his sonHermenegild as joint ruler, a civil war ensued between them. Hermenegild became the first Visigothic king to convert toNicene Christianity due to his ties with the Romans, but he was defeated in 584 and killed in 585.[17] By the end of his reign, Liuvigild had united the entire Iberian peninsula, including the Suebic Kingdom which he conquered in 585 during aSuebi civil war that ensued after the death of KingMiro. Liuvigild established amicable terms with the Franks through royal marriages, and they remained at peace throughout most of his reign. Liuvigild also founded new cities, such asReccopolis and Victoriacum (Vitoria), the first barbarian king to do so.[18][19]
Visigothic pair of eagles onfibulae (brooches for fastening garments), Spain
On becoming King, Liuvigild's sonReccared I (586–601) converted fromArian toChalcedonian Christianity. This led to some unrest in the kingdom, notably a revolt by the Arian bishop of Mérida which was put down; he also beat back another Frankish offensive in the north. Reccared then oversaw theThird Council of Toledo in 589, where he announced his faith in the Nicene creed and denounced Arianism. He adopted the name Flavius, the family name of the Constantinian dynasty, and styled himself as the successor to the Roman emperors. Reccared also fought the Byzantines inHispania Baetica after they had begun a new offensive.[20]
Reccared's son Liuva II became king in 601 but was deposed by the Visigothic nobleWitteric (603–610), ending the short-lived dynasty. There were various Visigothic Kings between 610 and 631, and this period saw constant regicide. This period also saw the definitive conquest of the Byzantine territories in the south. War continued in the north against the Basques andAsturians, as indeed it would continue for the rest of the Visigothic Kingdom's existence. These Kings also worked on religious legislature, especially KingSisebut (612–621), who passed several harsh laws against Jews and forced many Jews to convert to Christianity. Sisebut was also successful against the Byzantines, taking several of their cities, includingMálaga. The Byzantines were finally defeated bySwinthila (621–631), who had captured all of their Spanish holdings by 625. Suinthila was deposed by the Franks and replaced bySisinand.[21]
Map showing the conquests of Leovigild, c. 586
Visigothic Hispania and its regional divisions from 625 to 711, prior to the Muslim conquest
The instability of this period can be attributed to the power struggle between the kings and the nobility. Religious unification strengthened the political power of the church, which it exercised through church councils at Toledo along with the nobles. The fourth council, held during the brief reign ofSisinand in 633,[22] excommunicated and exiled the king, replacing him withChintila (636–639). The church councils were now the most powerful institution in the Visigothic state; they took the role of regulating the process of succession to the kingship by election of the king by Gothic noble 'senators' and the church officials. They also decided to meet on a regular basis to discuss ecclesiastical and political matters affecting the Church. Finally, they decided the kings should die in peace, and declared their persons sacred, seeking to end the violence and regicides of the past. Despite all this, another coup took place and Chintila was deposed in 639, and King Tulga took his place; he was also deposed in the third year of his reign and the council elected the nobleChindaswinth as king.
The reigns ofChindaswinth and his sonRecceswinth saw the compilation of the most important Visigothic law book, theLiber Iudiciorum (Spanish:Fuero Juzgo,English: Book of Judgements), also calledLex Visigothorum or theVisigothic Code promulgated by kingChindaswinth (642–653 AD) and completed in 654 by his son, kingRecceswinth (649–672), abolished the old tradition of having different laws for Hispano-Romans and Visigoths. The new laws applied to both Gothic and Hispano-Roman populations who had been under different laws in the past, and it replaced all older codes of law.[23] The code included old laws by past kings, such as Alaric II in hisBreviarium Alarici, and Leovigild, but many were also new laws. The code was based almost wholly on Roman law, with some influence of Germanic law in rare cases. Among the eliminated old laws were the harsh laws against Jews. TheLiber showed the old system of military and civil divisions in administration was changing, and dukes (duces provinciae) and counts (comites civitatis) had begun taking more responsibilities outside their original military and civil duties. The servants or slaves of the king became very prominent in the bureaucracy and exercised wide administrative powers. With the Visigoth law codes, women could inherit land and title and manage it independently from their husbands or male relations, dispose of their property in legal wills if they had no heirs, and could represent themselves and bear witness in court by age 14 and arrange for their own marriages by age 20. Chindaswinth (642–653) strengthened the monarchy at the expense of the nobility; he executed some 700 nobles, forced dignitaries to swear oaths, and in the seventh council of Toledo laid down his right to excommunicate clergy who acted against the government. He was also able to maneuver his sonRecceswinth on the throne, sparking a rebellion by a Gothic noble who allied with the Basques, but was put down. Recceswinth (653–672) held another council of Toledo, which reduced sentences for treason and affirmed the power of the councils to elect kings.[24]
Following Recceswinth, KingWamba (672–680) was elected king. He had to deal withFlavius Paulus' revolts in Tarraconensis andHilderic of Nimes, and because of this, he felt a need to reform the army. He passed a law declaring all dukes, counts and other military leaders, as well as bishops, had to come to the aid of the kingdom once danger became known or risk harsh punishment. Wamba was eventually deposed in a bloodless coup. King Ervig (680–687) held further church councils and repealed the previous harsh laws of Wamba, though he still made provisions for the army. Ervig had his son-in-law Egica made king. Despite a rebellion by the bishop of Toledo, the 16th council, held in 693, denounced the bishop's revolt. The 17th council in 694 passed harsh laws against the Jews, citing a conspiracy, and many were enslaved, especially those who had converted from Christianity. Egica also raised his sonWittiza as coruler in 698. Not much is known about his reign, but a period of civil war quickly ensued between his sons (Achila and Ardo) and King Roderic, who had seized Toledo.[25]
Copy of a mural fromQusayr Amra, depicting king Roderic
In 711, Tariq ibn Ziyad, a MuslimBerber client ofMusa bin Nusair, the governor of Islamic Africa, invaded Spain with about 7,000 Berber men, whileRoderic was in the north fighting theBasques. The tale thatJulian, Count of Ceuta, facilitated the invasion because one of his daughters had been dishonored by Roderic is possibly mythical. By late July, a battle took place at theGuadalete River in the province ofCádiz. Roderic was betrayed by his troops, who sided with his enemies, and the king was killed in battle. The Muslims then took much of southern Spain with little resistance and went on to capture Toledo, where they executed several Visigothic nobles. In 712, Musa, the governor ofIfriqiya, arrived with another army of 18,000, with large Arab contingents. He tookMérida in 713 and invaded the north, takingSaragossa andLeón, which were still under King Ardo, in 714. After being recalled by theCaliph, Musa left his son Abd al-'Aziz in command. By 716, most of the Iberian Peninsula was under Islamic rule, withSeptimania taken between 721 and 725. The only effective resistance was in Asturias, where a Visigothic nobleman named Pelagius revolted in 718, and defeated the Muslims at thebattle of Covadonga; this was the beginning of theReconquista.[26]
According to Joseph F. O'Callaghan, the remnants of the Hispano-Gothic aristocracy still played an important role in the society of Hispania. At the end of Visigothic rule, the assimilation of Hispano-Romans and Visigoths was occurring at a fast pace. Their nobility had begun to think of themselves as constituting one people, thegens Gothorum or theHispani. An unknown number of them fled and took refuge in Asturias or Septimania. In Asturias, they supported Pelagius's uprising, and joining with the indigenous leaders, formed a new aristocracy. The population of the mountain region consisted of nativeAstures,Galicians,Cantabri,Basques and other groups unassimilated into Hispano-Gothic society.[27]
Resistance also continued in the regions around thePyrenees with the establishment of theMarca Hispanica from 760 to 785 by theFrankish Empire. TheBerbers settled in the south and theMeseta Central inCastile. Initially, the Muslims generally left the Christians alone to practise their religion, although non-Muslims were subject to Islamic law and treated as second-class citizens.[28][29]
Visigothic settlements were concentrated along theGaronne River betweenBordeaux andToulouse inAquitaine during the 5th century, according to contemporary sources under the terms of the late Roman Empire asfoederatii, or allies, and assigned billeting obligations to provide lodging for Roman soldiers, more or less as the imperial military had done in other provinces.
Later in the century, following annexations made by KingEuric in Gaul and Hispania once the Roman Empire of the West had collapsed, specially after theBattle of Vouille, many Goths and their federated peoples, such as theVandals,Ostrogoths andSarmatians, moved to settle more freely under their kindred clans' rulers, thereiks, who received dukedom territories or comital offices as counts over smaller territories or key urban locations within the provinces of Hispania and in southwestern Gaul and its Mediterranean coast. Their settlements were made around the Roman cities ofEmerita Augusta (Mérida),Barcino (Barcelona),Hispalis (Seville),Toletum (Toledo) andSeptimanian Narbonne, which would be the main bases of Gothic power politically as well as militarily during the rest of the kingdom's history, as well as other settlements that were dispersed in rural farming areas between the upper reaches of theDouro,Ebro andTagus rivers, in an area betweenTierra de Campos, also known asCampi Gothorum, around CentralCastile and León andRioja, and Toledo to the east and south. After the fall of theGalician Kingdom of the Suebi, some further settlements were made along theTagus river north ofLisbon, byPorto andAstorga former strongholds of theSuebi. Little Visigothic settlement occurred elsewhere in the kingdom.[30]
The Visigoths founded the only new cities in Western Europe between the fifth and eighth centuries. It is certain (through contemporary Spanish accounts) that they founded four, and a possible fifth city is ascribed to them by a later Arabic source. All of these cities were founded for military purposes and three of them in celebration of victory.
The first,Reccopolis, was founded by Liuvigild in 578 after his victory over the Franks, near what is today the tiny village ofZorita de los Canes. He named it after his son Reccared and built it with Byzantine imitations, containing a palace complex and mint, but it lay in ruins by the 9th century (after theArab conquest).
At a slightly later date, Liuvigild founded a city he namedVictoriacum after his victory over the Basques.[31] Though it is often supposed to survive as the city ofVitoria, contemporary 12th-century sources refer to the latter city's foundation bySancho VI of Navarre.
Liuvigild's son and namesake of the first Visigothic city founded his own sometime around 600. It is referred to byIsidore of Seville asLugo id est Luceo in theAsturias, built after a victory over the Asturians orCantabri.[31]
The fourth and possibly final city of the Goths wasOlogicus (perhapsOlogitis), founded using Basque labour in 621 bySwinthila as a fortification against the recently subjected Basques. It is to be identified with modernOlite.[31]
The possible fifth Visigothic foundation isBaiyara (perhaps modernMontoro), mentioned as founded by Reccared in theGeography ofKitab al-Rawd al-Mitar.[32]
The Visigothic rule has often been misattributed to be a part of the so-calledDark Ages, a time of supposedly cultural and scientific decay. Through the course of their existence the Visigoths supposedly remained "men of the woods never strayed too far from there," asThomas F. Glick puts it.[33]
However, in fact, the Visigoths were preservers of the classical culture.[34] The bathing culture of Andalusia, for example, often said to be a Muslim invention, is a direct continuation of Romano-Visigothic traditions. VisigothicMérida housed baths supplied with water byaqueducts, and such aqueducts are also attested inCórdoba,Cádiz and Recopolis. Excavations confirm that Recopolis and Toledo, the Visigothic capital, were heavily influenced by the contemporary Byzantine architecture.[35] When the Muslims looted Spain during their conquest they were amazed by the fine and innumerable Visigothic treasures.[36] A few of these treasures were preserved as they were buried during the Muslim invasions – e.g., thevotive crowns from thetreasure of Guarrazar.[37]
Only the senior monks were allowed to read books of non-Christian or heretic authors.[38] This did not stop the rise of intellectuals such asIsidore of Seville, one of the most quoted scholars of the Middle Ages. He was known for the breadth of his literary output, highlighted by hisEtymologies, an encyclopedia of the knowledge of the epoch that was known and translated throughout medieval Europe.Eugenius I of Toledo was both theologian and poet, expert inmathematics andastronomy;Theodulf of Orléans, theologian and poet, after he had fled to the Frankish kingdom, participated in theCarolingian Renaissance.[39] A Muslim source referred to VisigothicSeville as the "abode of the sciences".[40] TheInstitutionum disciplinae from the mid seventh/early eight century confirms that Visigothic nobles were not only taught in reading and writing but also in science, medicine, law and philosophy.[41] An example of a highly educated nobleman was kingSisebut, who was a patron of learning and writer of poems, one of them about astronomy.[42]
These kings wereArians (followers of the theological teaching ofArius). They tended to succeed their fathers or close relatives on the throne and thus constitute a dynasty, theBalti.
The Visigothic monarchy took on a completely elective character with the fall of the Balti, but the monarchy remained Arian until Reccared I converted in 587 (Hermenegild had also converted earlier). Only a few sons succeeded their fathers to the throne in this period.
Tulga (640–641)Funerarystele fromNarbonne at the 7th-century beginning of the reign of Egica. The text begins with the Latin phraserequiescunt in pace. In various sources it is described as a "Christian inscription",[43] an "inscription relating to the Jews of France",[44] or as a Jewish inscription dated with the local calendar—theregnal year of Egica—rather than theHebrew calendar.[45]
^Following the death ofAmalaric (531). See:Barnish, S. J. B.; Center for Interdisciplinary Research on Social Stress (2007).The Ostrogoths from the migration period to the sixth century: an ethnographic perspective. Boydell & Brewer. p. 369.
^Capital of the Visigothic kingdom by the end of the reign ofAthanagild (died 567).Collins, Roger (2004).Visigothic Spain, 409–711. Oxford: Blackwell. p. 44.
^Kurlansky, Mark (2011).The Basque History of the World. Random House. p. 35.ISBN9781448113224.
^Orlandis, José (2003).Historia del reino visigodo español : los acontecimientos, las instituciones, la sociedad, los protagonistas (in Spanish) (2nd ed.). Madrid: Rialp.ISBN8432134694.
^Heather, Peter (1991).The Goths. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 189.ISBN9780631165361.
^Charles-Edwards, T. M. (2013).Wales and the Britons, 350–1064. Oxford University Press. p. 59.ISBN9780198217312.
^Claude, Dietrich (1998). "Remarks about relations between Visigoths and Hispano-Romans in the seventh century". In Pohl, Walter (ed.).Strategies of Distinction: Construction of Ethnic Communities, 300–800. Transformation of the Roman World. pp. 119–121.ISBN90-04-10846-7: dress and funerary customs cease to be distinguishing features in AD 570/580
^Cameron, Ward; Perkins and Whitby.The Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. XIV. Late Antiquity: Empire and Successors, A.D. 425–600. p. 48.
^Ring, Trudy; Salkin, Robert M.; La Boda, Sharon (1995).International Dictionary of Historic Places: Southern Europe. Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers. p. 170.
^O'Callaghan, Joseph F. (15 April 2013).A History of Medieval Spain. Cornell University Press. p. 176.ISBN978-0-8014-6872-8.
^abcThompson, "The Barbarian Kingdoms in Gaul and Spain".
^Lacarra, "Panorama de la historia urbana en la Península Ibérica desde el siglo V al X",La città nell'alto medioevo,6 (1958:319–358), inEstudios de alta edad media española, p. 48.
Fernández-Morera, Darío (2016).The Myth of the Andalusian Paradise. Muslims, Christians and Jews under Islamic Rule in Medieval Spain. ISI Books.ISBN9781504034692.
Kampers, Gerd (2008).Geschichte der Westgoten (in German). Ferdinand Schöningh.ISBN9783506765178.
Lacarra, José María.Estudios de alta edad media española. Valencia: 1975.
Barrett, Graham (2018). "Theodoric I the Visigoth". In Nicholson, Oliver (ed.).The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity. Vol. II. Oxford University Press.1475
Martínez Jiménez, Javier; Isaac Sastre de Diego; Carlos Tejerizo García. (2018)The Iberian Peninsula between 300 and 850. An Archaeological Perspective. Late Antique and Early Medieval Iberia 6. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press.ISBN9789089647771
Sivan, Hagith. "OnFoederati,Hospitalitas, and the Settlement of the Goths in A.D. 418."American Journal of Philology 108, no. 4 (1987): 759–772.
Thompson, E. A. "The Barbarian Kingdoms in Gaul and Spain",Nottingham Mediaeval Studies,7 (1963:4n11).
Thompson, E. A.The Goths in Spain. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1969.
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Vázquez, Federico Gallegos (2011). "El ejército visigodo: el primer ejército español". In Leandro Martínez Peñas; Manuela Fernández Rodríguez (eds.).Reflexiones sobre poder, guerra y religión en la Historia de España. pp. 11–56.ISBN978-84-615-2931-5.
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