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Virtus (Classical Latin:[ˈwɪrtuːs̠]) was a specificvirtue inancient Rome that carried connotations of valor, masculinity, excellence, courage, character, and worth, all perceived as masculine strengths. It was thus a frequently stated virtue ofRoman emperors, and was personified as the deityVirtus.
The origins of the wordvirtus can be traced back to theLatin wordvir, "man". The common list of attributes associated withvirtus were considered to be particularly masculine strengths. From the early to the later days of the Roman Empire, there appears to have been a development in how the concept was understood.
Originallyvirtus described specifically martial courage, but it eventually grew to be used to describe a range of Roman virtues. It was often divided into different qualities includingprudentia (practical wisdom),iustitia (justice),temperantia (temperance, self-control), andfortitudo (courage). This division of virtue as a whole intocardinal virtues is an ongoing project ofpositive psychology or, in philosophy,virtue ethics, following a tradition originating inPlato'sRepublic andAristotle'sNicomachean Ethics. It implies a link betweenvirtus and the Greek concept ofarete.
At one timevirtus extended to include a wide range of meanings that covered one general ethical ideal.[1] The use of the word grew and shifted to fit evolving ideas of what manliness meant.[2] Once,virtus meant primarily that a man was a brave warrior, but it came also to mean that he was a good man, someone who did the right thing. During the time of the decline of the Roman elite, the Roman upper class no longer thought of themselves as unmanly if they did not serve in the military.[3]
Virtus came from an aristocratic tradition in which it described a specific type of public conduct. It was mainly applicable to those in thecursus honorum, certainly by the late republic at least. It was not a "private" virtue in the way that modern people might consider it. Valor, courage, and manliness were not things to be pursued in the private sphere of the individual or the individual's private concerns. There could be no virtue in exploiting one's manliness in the pursuit of personal wealth, for example.Virtus was exercised in the pursuit ofgloria for the benefit of theres publica resulting in the winning of eternalmemoria. According to D.C. Earl, "Outside the service of theres publica there can be nomagistratus and therefore, strictly speaking, nogloria, nonobilitas, novirtus".[4]
The nobility ofvirtus lay not only in one's personalacta but also those of one's ancestors. However Cicero, anovus homo, asserted thatvirtus was a virtue particularly suited to the new man just asnobilitas was suited to the noble. Cicero argued that just as young men from noble families won the favor of the people so too should thenovus homo earn the favor of the people with hisvirtus. He asserted thatvirtus, and not one's family history, should decide a man's worthiness. Becausevirtus is something that a man earns himself, not something that is given to him by his family, it is a better measure of a man's ability. Cicero's goal was not to impugn the noble class but widen it to include men who had earned their positions by merit.[5]
The termvirtus was used quite significantly by the historianSallust, a contemporary of Cicero. Sallust asserted thatvirtus did not rightfully belong to thenobilitas as a result of their family background but specifically to thenovus homo through the exercise ofingenium (talent, also means sharpness ofmind,sagacity, foresight, and character). For Sallust and Cicero alike,virtus comes from winning glory through illustrious deeds (egregia facinora) and the observance of right conduct throughbonae artes.[6]
Virtus was not universally applicable—typically only adult male Roman citizens could be thought of as possessingvirtus.
Virtus was rarely attributed to women, likely because of its association withvir. The highest regarded female virtue waspudicitia: "modesty" or "chastity".Cicero, however, attributesvirtus to women several times. He uses it once to describe Caecilia Metella when she helps a man who is being chased by assassins.[Note 1] Twice more he uses it when describing his daughter,Tullia, portraying her in his letters as brave in his absence.[10] He uses it again to describe his first wifeTerentia during his exile.[11]Livy in Book 2 attributes it to Cloelia.[12]
Virtus was not a term commonly used to describe children. Sincevirtus was primarily attributed to a full grown man who had served in the military, children were not particularly suited to obtain this particular virtue.
While aslave was able to behomo ("man") he was not considered avir. Slaves were often referred to aspuer (Latin forboy) to denote that they were not citizens.[13] Since a slave could not be avir it follows that they could not have the quality ofvirtus. Once a slave was manumitted, he was able to become avir and also classified as a freedman, but this did not allow him to havevirtus. A good slave or freedman was said to havefides, but novirtus.[13]
Foreigners in the Roman world could be attributed withvirtus, for example, if they fought bravely.Virtus could also be lost in battle.Virtus could even be a qualification for citizenship, as in the case of Spanish cavalry men granted citizenship byGnaeus Pompeius Strabo in 89 BCE for theirvirtus in battle.[14]
Virtus applies exclusively to a man's behaviour in the public sphere; that is, to the application of duty to theres publica in thecursus honorum. His private business was no place to earnvirtus, even when it involved courage, feats of arms, or other associated qualities performed for the public good.
While in many cultures it is considered "manly" to father and provide for a family, family life was considered in the Roman world to be part of the private sphere, in which there was no place forvirtus. Most uses ofvirtus to describe any part of private life are ambiguous and refer to another similar quality.[15] In the Roman world the oldest living patriarch of the family was called thepater familias. This title implied that he could make all legal and binding decisions for the family; he also owned all its money, land, and other property. His wife, daughters, sons, and his sons' families were all under hispotestas. The only time a son was seen as separate from his father's control in the eyes of other Romans was when he assumed his public identity as a citizen. He could earn hisvirtus by serving in the military, and thus he could only demonstrate manliness outside of the family setting. This is another reason thatvirtus is not often used to describe Roman private life.[16]
Virtus was a crucial component for a political career. Its broad definition led to it being used to describe a number of qualities that the Roman people idealized in their leaders.
In everyday life a typical Roman, especially a young boy, would have been inculcated with the idea ofvirtus. Since military service was a part of the lives of most Roman men, military training would have started fairly early. Young boys would have learned how to wield weapons and military tactics starting at home with their fathers and older male relatives and later in school. Also a young boy would have heard numerous stories about past heroes, battles, and wars. Some of these stories would have told of thevirtus of past heroes, and even family members. Publicly it was easy to see the rewards ofvirtus. Publictriumphs were held for victorious generals and rewards were given to brave fighters. This propaganda encouraged young boys coming into their manhood to be brave fighters and earnvirtus. It was the duty of every generation of men to maintain thedignitas which his family had already earned and to enlarge it. Pressure to live up to the standards of one's ancestors was great. In achievingvirtus one could also achievegloria. By gainingvirtus andgloria one could hope to aspire to high political office and great renown.
Cicero suggested thatvirtus was real manhood and that it boiled down to "Ever to excel." He declared that "The whole glory of virtue [virtus] resides in activity." A Roman political man would only need to show scars in defense of the Republic to prove his worth.
Romans established their status through activity, creating a pecking order of honour. This involvedagon—a test, trial, or ordeal requiring active effort to overcome. This activity was thought to banish certain characteristics of Roman thought that were believed to be negative. Such negative characteristics included being shameless, inactive, isolated, or leisurely and were the absence ofvirtus; placingdignitas into a static, frozen state. The contest established one's being and constructed the reality of one'svirtus. Romans were willing to suffer shame, humiliation,victory, defeat, glory, destruction, success, and failure in pursuit of this.
While young boys were encouraged to earnvirtus, there were limits on showingvirtus in public.[original research?]Virtus was often associated with being aggressive[citation needed] and this could be dangerous in the public sphere and the political world. Displays of violentvirtus were controlled through several methods. Men seeking to hold political office typically had to follow thecursus honorum. Many political offices had an age minimum which ensured that the men filling the positions had the proper amount of experience in the military and in government. Thus, even if a man proved himself capable of filling a position or was able to persuade people that he was capable, he would not necessarily be able to hold the position until he had reached a certain age. Minimum age also ensured an equal basis for candidates in elections for public offices, because by the time most men went into public office they would have retired from military service. Furthermore, before any Roman soldier could partake in single combat, he had to gain permission from his general. This was meant to keep soldiers from putting themselves in unnecessary danger in order to gainvirtus.
Politically,virtus also tended to be a concept of morality. In contrast to its representation of manliness—as seen in aggression and the ruthless acquisition of money, land, and power—the lighter, more idealistic political meaning almost took on the extended meaning ofpietas, as a man who was morally upright and concerned with the matters of the state.[17]
Plautus inAmphitruo contrastedvirtus andambitio.Virtus is seen as a positive attribute, while thoughambitio itself is not necessarily a negative attribute it is often associated with negative methods such as bribery. Plautus said that just as great generals and armies win victory byvirtus, so should political candidates.Ambitio "is the wrong method of reaching a good end." Part ofvirtus, in the political sphere, was to deal justly in every aspect of one's life, especially in political and state matters.[18]
According to Brett and Kate McKay,the Roman identity exists in a paradigm[clarification needed]; Rome was a contest culture and honor culture. Romans believed "your identity was neither fixed nor permanent, your worth was a moving target, and you had to always be actively engaged in proving yourself."[19]
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Although "virtus" and "virtue" are related concepts,virtus for the Roman did not necessarily emphasize the behavior that the associations of the present-day English term "virtue" suggest.Virtus was to be found in "outstanding deeds" (egregia facinora), and brave deeds were the accomplishments that broughtgloria ("a reputation"). Thisgloria was attached to two ideas:fama ("what people think of you") anddignitas ("one's standing in the community"). The struggle forvirtus in Rome was above all a struggle for public office (honos): it was through military achievement, which would in turn cultivate a reputation and votes, that a man could best show hisvirtus. It was the duty of every aristocrat and would-be aristocrat to maintain thedignitas that his family had already achieved and to extend it to the greatest possible degree, through political offices and military victories. This system resulted in a strong built-in impetus in Roman society to engage in military expansion and conquest.
While in many cultures the virtue of manliness is seen as being partly sexual,[citation needed] in the Roman world the wordvirtus did not necessitate sexuality. Similar words deriving from the same stem often have sexual connotations, such as the word for man itself (vir) and the concept of "virility" (virilitas).[20] Nonetheless, poems such asCatullus 16 and theCarmina Priapea,[21] as well as speeches such as Cicero'sIn Verrem, demonstrate that manliness andpudicitia, or sexual propriety, were linked.[22]
M. Claudius Marcellus, during the battle ofClastidium in 222 BCE, dedicated a temple toHonos and Virtus. This was one of the first times that Virtus had been recognized as divine. The connection with Honos would have been obvious to most Romans, as demonstrations ofvirtus led to election to public office, and both were consideredhonos. The cult of Honos was already a long-standing tradition in Rome. The marriage of the two deities ensured that Virtus would also get proper respect from the Romans. But thepontiffs objected that one temple could not properly house two gods because there would be no way of knowing to which god to sacrifice should a miracle happen in the temple.[citation needed]
During the reign ofAugustus, theSenate voted that a golden shield be inscribed with Augustus' attributes and displayed in theCuria Iulia, these virtues includingvirtus,clementia,iustitia, andpietas. These political catchwords continued to be used as propaganda by later emperors.
The comic poet Plautus made use ofvirtus in his playTrinummus, which concerned familyvirtus, honor, public office, and obligations to the state. He also offered commentary on the concept ofvirtus inAmphitruo (see§ In public above).[23]
Cicero said, "[only]virtus usually wards off a cruel and dishonorable death, andvirtus is the badge of the Roman race and breed. Cling fast to [virtus], I beg you men of Rome, as a heritage that your ancestors bequeathed to you. All else is false and doubtful, ephemeral and changeful: onlyvirtus stands firmly fixed, its roots run deep, it can never be shaken by any violence, never moved from its place."[24]
