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Avirago is a woman who demonstrates abundant masculine virtues. The word comes from the Latin wordvirāgō (genitive virāginis) meaning "vigorous maiden"[1] fromvir meaning "man" or "man-like" (cf.virile andvirtue) to which the suffix-āgō is added, a suffix that creates a new noun of thethird declension with femininegrammatical gender. Historically, this was often positive and reflected heroism and exemplary qualities of masculinity. However, it could also be pejorative, indicating a woman who is masculine to the exclusion of traditional feminine virtues.
Modern use of the wordvirago generally takes the disparaging sense. Thusvirago joinedpejoratives such astermagant,[2]mannish,amazonian andshrew to describe women who acted aggressively or like men. The wordvirago has almost always had an association with culturalgender transgression. There are recorded instances of viragos (such asJoan of Arc) fighting battles, wearing men's clothing, or receiving thetonsure.[3]
Historically, the concept of a virago reaches back into antiquity whereHellenistic philosophy asserted that elite and exceptionally heroic men hadvirtus (Greek:ἀνδρεία,romanized: andreia).Virtus (once again linked tovir, the brave man abiding by society's highest values and ethics as opposed tohomo, human being) defined the traits of excellence for a man in ancient Rome (and Greece), including valor and heroism, but also morality and physical strength. Women and non-elite or unheroic men (slaves, servants, craftsmen, merchants) were considered a lesser category, and believed to be less excellent inRoman morality. A woman, however, if exceptional enough could earn the titlevirago. In doing so, she surpassed the expectations for what was believed possible for hergender, and embodied masculine-like aggression[4] and/or excellence.Ovid, in hisMetamorphoses (1st century CE), refers to the goddessAthena asflava[yellow-haired] virago.[5] Virago, then, was a title of respect and admiration. InChristianity, anun or holy woman who had become equal in divinity to malemonks through practicedcelibacy, exemplary religious practice and devotion, and intactvirginity, was considered to have surpassed the limitations of her femaleness and was calledvirago.[6][7] Latin writerFirmicus Maternus in the 4th century CE describes virago as women who take on a man's character and desire intercourse with women like men.[8]
Standard modern dictionaries definevirago as either, in order of definition, (1) a "loud overbearing woman"; a "shrew".[9] or (2) a woman of "great stature, strength, and courage"[2][10] Thus virago continues to be associated with both the naming of a woman who has either (1) a domineering, abrasive and spiteful manner, or (2) has risen above cultural andgender stereotypes to embody avirile heroism; for example, theBritish Royal Navy christened at least four warshipsVirago.
TheVulgate Bible, translated byJerome and others in the 4th century C.E., was an early Latin translation of the Hebrew BibleOld Testament. In Genesis 2:23, Jerome uses the wordsVir for man andVirago for "woman" attempting to reproduce a pun on "male" and "female" (ish andishah) that existed in the Hebrew text.[11][12]
The Vulgate reads:
Dixitque Adam hoc nunc os ex ossibus meis et caro de carne mea haec vocabiturvirago quoniam de viro sumpta est.
"And Adam said: This now is bone of my bones, and flesh of my flesh; she shall be called woman, because she was taken out of man."
The Middle English poemCursor Mundi retains the Latin name for the woman in its otherwise Middle English account of the creation:
Quen sco was broght be-for adam,Virago he gaf her to nam; þar for hight scovirago, ffor maked of the man was sco. (lines 631–34)
"When she was brought before Adam, Virago was the name he gave to her; Therefore she is called Virago, For she was made out of the man."
