 | |
| Geographical range | Europe (Italy:Emilia-Romagna,Tuscany,Lazio,Campania) |
|---|---|
| Period | Early Iron Age, Early phases of theEtruscan civilization |
| Dates | c. 900–700 BCE |
| Preceded by | Proto-Villanovan culture |
| Followed by | Orientalizing period (later 700–500 BCE) of theEtruscan civilization |
TheVillanovan culture (c. 900–700 BCE), regarded as the earliest phase of theEtruscan civilization,[1][2][3][4][5] was the earliestIron Age culture ofItaly. It directly followed theBronze AgeProto-Villanovan culture which branched off from theUrnfield culture ofCentral Europe.[6] The name derives from the locality of Villanova, a fraction of the municipality ofCastenaso in theMetropolitan City of Bologna where, between 1853 and 1855,Giovanni Gozzadini found the remains of a necropolis, bringing to light 193 tombs, of which there were 179 cremations and 14 inhumations.[7]
The Villanovans introduced iron-working to theItalian Peninsula. They practicedcremation and buried the ashes of their dead in pottery urns of distinctive double-cone shape.[8]
The nameVillanovan of the early phases of the Etruscan civilization comes from the site of the first archaeological finds relating to this advanced culture, which were remnants of a cemetery found nearVillanova (Castenaso, 12 kilometres east ofBologna) innorthern Italy. The excavation lasting from 1853 to 1855 was done by the scholar and site owner, countGiovanni Gozzadini, and involved 193 tombs, six of which were separated from the rest as if to signify a special social status. The "well tomb" pit graves lined with stones containedfunerary urns. These had been only sporadically plundered and most were untouched. In 1893, a chance discovery unearthed another distinctive Villanovan necropolis atVerucchio overlooking theAdriatic coastal plain.
The burial characteristics relate the Villanovan culture to the Central EuropeanUrnfield culture (c. 1300–750 BCE) and CelticHallstatt culture that succeeded the Urnfield culture. It is not possible to tell these apart in their earlier stages. Cremated remains were placed incinerary urns, specifically in biconical urns[9] and then buried. The urns were a form of Villanovan pottery known asimpasto.[9] A custom believed to originate with the Villanovan culture is the usage of hut-shaped urns, which were cinerary urns fashioned like the huts in which the villagers lived. Typicalsgraffito decorations ofswastikas,meanders, andsquares were scratched with a comb-like tool. Urns were accompanied by simple bronzefibulae, razors and rings.
The Villanovan culture is broadly divided intoVillanovan I fromc. 960 BCE toc. 801 BCE and theVillanovan II fromc. 800 BCE to 720 BCE. The later phase (Villanovan II) saw radical changes, evidence of contact with Hellenic civilization and trade with the north along theAmber Road. This evidence takes the form of glass andamber necklaces for women, armor and horse harness fittings ofbronze, and the development of elite graves in contrast to the earlier egalitarian culture.[10] Chamber tombs and inhumation (burial) practices were developed side-by-side with the earliercremation practices. With the last phase of Villanovan II the Etruscans, in particularSouthern Etruria, entered theOrientalizing period. The northernmost areas of the Etruscan world, such as Etruria Padana, continued in their development asVillanovan III (750–680 BCE) andVillanovan IV (680–540 BCE).
| Etruscan civilization (900–27 BCE)[11] | Villanovan period (900–720 BCE) | Villanovan I | 900–800 BCE |
| Villanovan II | 800–720 BCE | ||
| Villanovan III (Bologna area) | 720-680 BCE[12] | ||
| Villanovan IV (Bologna area) | 680-540 BCE[12] | ||
| Orientalizing period (720–580 BCE) | Early Orientalizing | 720–680 BCE | |
| Middle Orientalizing | 680–625 BCE | ||
| Late Orientalizing | 625–580 BCE | ||
| Archaic period (580–480 BCE) | Archaic | 580–480 BCE | |
| Classical period (480–320 BCE) | Classical | 480–320 BCE | |
| Hellenistic period (320–27 BCE) | Hellenistic | 320–27 BCE |
The metalwork quality found in bronze and pottery demonstrate the skill of the Villanovan artisans. Some grave goods from burial sites display an even higher quality, suggesting the development of societal elites within Villanovan culture. Tools and items were placed in graves suggesting a belief in an afterlife. Men's graves contained weapons, armor, while those for women included weaving tools. A few graves switched or mixed these, indicating the possibility that some women employed tools and that some men made clothing.[13]
During the Villanovan period Etruscans traded with other states from the Mediterranean such as Greeks, Balkans, and Sardinia. Trade brought about advancement in metallurgy, and Greek presence influenced Villanovan pottery.[13]
Buildings were rectangular in shape. The people lived in small huts, made of wattle and daub with wooden poles for support. Within the huts, cooking stands, utensils and charred animal bones give evidence about the family life of early inhabitants in Italy.[14] Some huts contained large pottery jars for food storage sunk into their floors. There was also a rock cut drain to channel rainwater to communal reservoirs.[13]
Generally speaking, Villanovan settlements were centered in the AdriaticEtruria, inEmilia Romagna (in particular, inBologna and inVerucchio, nearRimini), inMarche (Fermo), and in the Tyrrhenian Etruria, inTuscany andLazio. Further south, Villanovan cremation burials are to be found inCampania, atCapua, at the "princely tombs" ofPontecagnano nearSalerno,[note 1] at Capo di Fiume, atVallo di Diano and atSala Consilina.
Small scattered Villanovan settlements have left few traces other than their more permanent burial sites, which were set somewhat apart from the settlements—largely because the settlement sites were built over in Etruscan times. Modern opinion generally followsMassimo Pallottino in regarding the Villanovan culture as ancestral to theEtruscan civilization.
A genetic study published inScience in November 2019 examined the remains of a female from the Villanovan culture buried inVeio Grotta Gramiccia, Italy between ca. 900 BCE and 800 BCE. She carried the maternal haplogroupK1a4,[15] found all over Europe since Neolithic times,[16] and her autosomal DNA was a mixture of 72.9%Copper Age ancestry (EEF +WHG) and 27.1%Steppe-related ancestry.[17] There was evidence for consanguinity for this sample with another ancient sample (700 BCE - 600 BCE) from the Etruscan necropolis of La Mattonara nearCivitavecchia, compatible with being the latter an offspring of third-degree relatives from the former.[18]
.jpg)
_in_bronzo%2c_da_isola_del_giglio%2c_localit%25C3%25A0_campese%2c_X-IX_sec._ac.JPG)
Il termine "Villanoviano" è entrato nella letteratura archeologica quando, a metà dell '800, il conte Gozzadini mise in luce le prime tombe ad incinerazione nella sua proprietà di Villanova di Castenaso, in località Caselle (BO). La cultura villanoviana coincide con il periodo più antico della civiltà etrusca, in particolare durante i secoli IX e VIII a.C. e i termini di Villanoviano I, II e III, utilizzati dagli archeologi per scandire le fasi evolutive, costituiscono partizioni convenzionali della prima età del Ferro
| Part ofa series on the |
| Iron Age |
|---|
| ↑Bronze Age |
By region
|
Related topics |
| ↓Ancient history |
| International | |
|---|---|
| National | |
| Other | |
