AVietnam veteran is an individual who performed activeground,naval, orair service in theRepublic of Vietnam during theVietnam War.[1]
The term has been used to describeveterans who served in the armed forces ofSouth Vietnam, theUnited States Armed Forces, and other South Vietnam–backed allies, whether or not they were stationed inVietnam during their service. However, the more common usage distinguishes between those who served "in-country" and those who did not serve in Vietnam by referring to the "in-country" veterans as "Vietnam veterans" and the others as "Vietnam-era veterans." Regardless, theU.S. government officially refers to all as "Vietnam-era veterans."[2]
In theUnited States, the term "Vietnam veteran" is not typically used in relation to members of thePeople's Army of Vietnam or theViet Cong (also known as the National Liberation Front) due to the United States' alliance withSouth Vietnamese forces.[3]
However, in many parts ofeast andsoutheast Asia, the term "Vietnam veteran" may also apply to allies of theNorth Vietnamese, including the People's Army of Vietnam, the Viet Cong (National Liberation Front), thePeople's Liberation Army ofChina, and theKorean People's Army ofNorth Korea.
While the exact numbers are not entirely known, it is estimated that several million served in theSouth Vietnamese armed forces, the vast majority in theArmy of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN). From 1969 to 1971, there were around 22,000 ARVN combat deaths per year. The army reached its peak strength of about 1,000,000 soldiers in 1972. The official number of South Vietnamese personnel killed in action was 220,357.[4]
Following the North Vietnamese victory on April 30, 1975, South Vietnamese veterans were arrested and detained inlabor camps in desolate areas. The veterans and their families were detained without trial for decades at a time. After being released, they faced significant discrimination from theCommunist government. A significant proportion of the surviving South Vietnamese veterans left the country for Western countries including theUnited States andAustralia, either by or through the Humanitarian Operation (HO).
According to theU.S. Department of Labor, theVietnam Era Veterans' Readjustment Assistance Act of 1974 (VEVRAA) states, "A Vietnam era veteran" is a person who:
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In 2004, theU.S. Census Bureau reported there were 8.2 million Vietnam-era veterans who were living in the United States,[needs update] with 2.59 million of them being reported to have actually served "in-country."More than 58,000 U.S. military personnel died as a result of the conflict.[5] That includes deaths from all categories including deaths while missing, captured, non-hostile deaths,homicides, andsuicides. TheDepartment of Veterans Affairs recognizes veterans that served in the country, then known as theRepublic of Vietnam, from February 28, 1961, to May 7, 1975, as being eligible for such programs as the department's Readjustment Counseling Services program, also known as the Vet Centers. The Vietnam War was the last American war in which the U.S. government employedconscription.
American servicemen who served between January 9, 1962, and May 7, 1975, are presumed to have been exposed toherbicides, such asAgent Orange.[6]
Many Vietnam veterans suffered frompost-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in unprecedented numbers, with PTSD affecting as many as 15.2% of Vietnam veterans. Referred to as the first "pharmacological war" in history, the U.S. war in Vietnam was so called because of the unprecedented level ofpsychoactive drugs that U.S. servicemen used. The U.S. military had routinely provided heavy psychoactive drugs, includingamphetamines, to American servicemen, which left them unable to process adequately their war traumas at the time. The U.S. armed forces readily distributed large amounts of "speed" (stimulants), in the form ofDexedrine (dextroamphetamine), an amphetamine twice as strong as Benzedrine, to American servicemen. Soldiers embarking on long-rangereconnaissance missions or ambushes, according to standard military instruction, were supposed to be given 20 milligrams of dextroamphetamine for 48 hours of combat readiness. But this instruction for heavy drugs was rarely followed: the drug was issued, according to veterans, "like candies," with little or no attention paid to the dose and frequency of administering the drug. In the period 1966–1969, the U.S. military provided 225 million tablets of stimulants, mostly dextroamphetamine, according to a 1971 report by the Select Committee on Crime of theU.S. House of Representatives.[7] According to a member of a long-range reconnaissance platoon, the drugs "gave you a sense of bravado as well as keeping you awake. Every sight and sound was heightened. You were wired into it all and at times you felt really invulnerable." Servicemen who participated in infiltratingLaos, a secret intervention by the United States in theLaotian Civil War, on four-day missions received 12 tablets of anopioid (Darvon), 24 tablets ofcodeine (anopioid analgesic), and 6 pills of dextroamphetamine. Also, those serving in special units departing for a tough, long mission were injected withsteroids.
However, pumping the soldiers with speed and heavy anti-psychotics likeThorazine (chlorpromazine) came with a price that veterans paid later. By alleviating the symptoms, the anti-psychotics and narcotics offered temporary relief. However, these serious drugs administered in the absence of professionalpsychiatric supervision and properpsychotherapy merely suppressed the problems and symptoms, but veterans years later often experienced those problems untreated and amplified. This is a large part of the reason why very few servicemen, compared to previous wars, required medical evacuation due to combat-stress breakdowns, but PTSD levels among veterans after the war are at unprecedented levels compared to previous wars.[7]
Nationals of other nations fought in the American-led anti-communist coalition, usually as armed forces of allied nations, such as Australia, New Zealand,Thailand, andSouth Korea, but sometimes as members of the U.S. Armed Forces. TheRepublic of China (Taiwan), Spain,[8] and thePhilippines contributed assistance in non-combat roles.
Australia deployed approximately three battalions ofinfantry, one regiment ofCenturion tanks, threeRAAF Squadrons (2SQN Canberra Bombers, 9SQN Iroquois Helicopters, and 35 SQN Caribou Transports), 2 batteries ofRoyal Australian Artillery and aSpecial Air Service Regiment (SASR) Squadron. TheRoyal Australian Navy (RAN) performed a variety of operational tasks at sea, ashore and in the air. The1st Australian Task Force consisted of Army, Navy, and Air Force personnel and commanded all Australian operations from 1966 until 1972.1st Australian Logistic Support Group (1 ALSG) was 1 ATF's ground support unit, composed of engineer, transport, ordnance, medical, and service corps units. Australian Army training teams followed the withdrawal of combat forces in 1971. According to the Australian Government Nominal Roll of Vietnam Veterans[9] 13,600 members of the Royal Australian Navy, 41,720 members of the Australian Army, and 4,900 members of the Royal Australian Air Force served in Vietnam from 1962 to 1975. According to official statistics, 501 personnel died or went missing in action during the Vietnam War[10] and 2,400 were wounded.[10]
During the Vietnam era, more than 30,000 Canadians served in the U.S. Armed Forces; 110 Canadians died in Vietnam, and seven are listed asmissing in action. Fred Griffin, a military historian with theCanadian War Museum, estimated inVietnam Magazine (Perspectives) that approximately 12,000 of these personnel served in Vietnam. Most of these wereCanadians who lived in the United States. The military of Canada did not participate in the war effort.
Initially, New Zealand provided a 25-man team of RNZE engineers from 1964 to 1965. In May 1965, New Zealand replaced the engineers with a 4-gunartillery battery (140 men) which served until 1971. 750 men served with the battery during this time. In 1967 the first of two rifle companies of infantry, designated Victor Company, arrived shortly thereafter followed by Whiskey company. Over 1,600 New Zealand soldiers saw action in these companies, over 5 years and 9 tours. Also in 1967 a military medical team consisting of RNZAF, RNZN, and RNZAMC medical staff arrived and remained until 1971. (This team was additional but separate from the civilian medical team that had arrived in 1963 and left in 1975.) In 1968 an NZSAS troop arrived, serving 3 tours before their withdrawal. Most New Zealanders operated in Military Region 3 with 1 ATF, in Nui Dat inPhuoc Thuy Province, North East ofSaigon. RNZAF flew troops and supplies, did helicopter missions (as part of RAAF), or worked as Forward Air Controllers in the USAF. Other New Zealanders from various branches of service were stationed at 1 ALSG in Vung Tau and New Zealand V Force Headquarters in Saigon. At the height of New Zealand's involvement in 1968, the force was 580 men. Along with the United States and Australia, New Zealand contributed 2 combined-service training teams to train ARVN and Cambodian troops from 1971 until 1972. New Zealand and Australian combat forces were withdrawn in 1971. New Zealand's total contribution numbered nearly 4,000 personnel from 1964 until 1972. 37 were killed and 187 were wounded. As of 2010, no memorial has been erected to remember these casualties. Like the United States and Australia, the New Zealand veterans were rejected by the people and the government after returning and did not receive a welcome home parade until 2008. The Tribute also included a formal Crown Apology.[11] Despite high mortality rates among New Zealand Vietnam veterans attributed to Agent Orange, the New Zealand Government has been accused of ignoring the issue until only recently. The New Zealand documentary "Jungle Rain: The NZ Story Of Agent Orange and the Vietnam War"[12] (2006) discusses the Agent Orange issue in depth.
South Korea deployed approximately two army divisions (Capital Mechanized Infantry Division,9th Infantry Division), one Marine Corps Brigade (2nd Marine Brigade) and other support units.
Throughout the Vietnam War,South Korea sent approximately 320,000 servicemen to Vietnam. At the peak of their commitment, in 1968, South Korea maintained a force of approximately 48,000 men in the country. All troops were withdrawn in 1973. About 5,099 South Koreans were killed and 10,962 wounded during the war.
Thailand sent nearly 40,000 volunteer soldiers to South Vietnam during the war and peaked at 11,600 by 1969.[13] Units included the elite Queen's Cobras and the renowned Black Panther Division of theRoyal Thai Army Volunteer Force. TheRoyal Thai Air Force provided personnel transport and supply runs in liaison with theRepublic of Vietnam Air Force and theUnited States Air Force (USAF). TheRoyal Thai Navy also contributed personnel. The last of the Thai troops left Vietnam in April 1972, with 351 killed and 1,358 wounded.
ThePhilippines sent the "Philippine Civic Action Group" (PHILCAG-V), which entered Vietnam in September 1966, to set up operations in a base camp in Tay Ninh Province northwest of Saigon. The non-combat force included an engineer construction battalion, medical and rural community development teams, a security battalion, and a logistics and headquarters element. The team's strength peaked at 2068. Even though the role of PHILCAG-V was humanitarian, 9 personnel were killed and 64 wounded[14] throughout their 40-month stay through sniper attacks, land mines, and booby traps. The team left Vietnam in 1969.
ThePeople's Republic of China deployed the most foreign troops to assist North Vietnam, with nearly 320,000 troops of thePeople's Liberation Army. The logistical support provided by China allowed for continuous operations andguerrilla warfare tactics used by the North Vietnamese forces, regardless of American-led attempts to stop the flow of resources down the "Ho Chi Minh trail" to South Vietnam (Republic of Vietnam). American forces were unable to retaliate against Chinese targets, as it was believed that by doing so, America would escalate the already strained effects of theCold War, and believed it would invite retaliation by theSoviet Union.[15]
TheSoviet Union deployed roughly 4,500 soldiers, technicians, and pilots to Vietnam, surreptitiously, to help turn the war in favor of the North. Whilst their presence was never acknowledged by the USSR or any of her successor nations, Soviet involvement was an open secret. The Soviet Union's policy on the units deployed was to label them "military consultants."[16][17] This deployment resulted in the development of the North Vietnamese air force, then it was formed against the United States' involvement in the war.[18] From 1975 to 2002, forty-four Soviet servicemen were killed in Vietnam, mainly in aviation accidents.[19] The military collaboration at Cam Ranh Base was continued by the later government ofRussia until 2002.[20]
There are persistent stereotypes about Vietnam veterans as psychologically devastated, bitter, homeless, drug-addicted people, who had a hard time readjusting to society, primarily because of the uniquely divisive nature of the Vietnam War in the context ofU.S. history.[citation needed] That social division has expressed itself by the lack both of public and institutional support for the former servicemen that would normally be expected[opinion] by returning combatants. In a material sense also,veterans benefits for Vietnam-era veterans were dramatically less than those enjoyed afterWorld War II.[citation needed] TheVietnam-Era Veterans' Readjustment Assistance Act of 1974, as amended,38 U.S.C. § 4212, was meant to try to help the veterans overcome the issues.
In 1979,Public Law 96-22 established the first Vet Centers,[21] after a decade of effort by combat vets and others who realized that Vietnam veterans in America and elsewhere (including Australia) were facing specific kinds of readjustment problems, later identified aspost-traumatic stress (PTS). Veterans, particularly inSouthern California, were responsible for many of those early lobbying and subsequent Vet Center treatment programs. They founded one of the first local organizations by and for Vietnam veterans in 1981, now known as Veterans Village.[22] Other notable organizations that were founded then included theInternational Society for Traumatic Stress Studies and the National Organization for Victim Assistance. The organizations continue to study and/or certify post-traumatic stress disorder responders and clinicians. To find closure, thousands of former American soldiers have visited and some have decided to move permanently to Vietnam to confront the psychological and physical remnants of the Vietnam War. They participate in the removal of unexploded mines and bombs, help people affected byAgent Orange, teach English to the Vietnamese and conduct Vietnam War battlefield tours for tourists.[23]
The Vietnam veteran has been depicted in fiction and film of variable quality. A major theme is the difficulties of soldiers readjusting from combat to civilian life. This theme had occasionally been explored in the context of World War Two in such films asThe Best Years of Our Lives (1946) andThe Men (1950). However, films featuring Vietnam veterans constitute a much larger genre.[24]
The first appearance of a Vietnam veteran in a film seems to beThe Born Losers (1967) featuringTom Laughlin asBilly Jack. Bleaker in tone are such films asHi, Mom! (1970) in which vetRobert De Niro films pornographic home movies before deciding to become anurban guerrilla,The Strangers in 7A where a team of former paratroopers blow up a bank and threaten to blow up a residential apartment building,The Hard Ride (1971) andWelcome Home, Soldier Boys (1972) in which returning vets are met with incomprehension and violence.
In many films, likeGordon's War (1973) andRolling Thunder (1977), the veteran uses his combat skills developed in Vietnam to wage war on evil-doers in America.[24] This is also the theme ofTaxi Driver (1976) in which Robert De Niro plays Vietnam veteran Travis Bickle who wages a one-man war against society whilst he makes plans to assassinate a presidential candidate. This film inspiredJohn W. Hinckley to make a similar attempt against PresidentRonald Reagan.[25] In a similar vein isFirst Blood (1982), which starsSylvester Stallone in the iconic role ofJohn Rambo, a Vietnam vet who comes into conflict with a small-town police department.
Such films asWelcome Home, Johnny Bristol (1972), andThe Ninth Configuration (1979) were innovative in depicting veterans suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder before this syndrome became widely known.[24] InBorn on the Fourth of July (1989)Tom Cruise portrays disenchanted Vietnam veteranRon Kovic who, wounded in action and requiring the use of a wheelchair, leads rallies against the war. A more recent example isBruce Dern's portrayal of a down-and-out veteran in the filmMonster (2003).B-movies that feature Vietnam veterans with an emphasis on action, violence, and revenge, belong into the exploitation subgenre called "vetsploitation."[26]
In television, the first Vietnam veteran to be a regular character in a U.S. dramatic series was Lincoln Case onRoute 66. Case, played by Glenn Corbett, was introduced in 1963, long before the major U.S. buildup in Vietnam. "Linc" Case was initially portrayed as an angry, embittered man, not only because of his harrowing wartime experiences (which included being taken prisoner and escaping a POW camp) but also because of his grim childhood and continuing estrangement from much of his family. The show depicted his effort to make peace with himself and others.
In the 1980s and 1990s, service in Vietnam was part of thebackstory of many TV characters, particularly in police or detective roles. The wartime experiences of some of these characters, such asMacGyver, Rick Simon ofSimon & Simon, or Sonny Crockett onMiami Vice, were mentioned only occasionally and rarely became central to story lines. To a degree, writing in a Vietnam background provided a logical chronology, but also served to give these characters more depth, and explain their skills, e.g. MacGyver having served in abomb disposal unit.China Beach, which aired in the late 1980s, was the only television program that featured women who were in Vietnam as military personnel or civilian volunteers.
Thomas Magnum ofMagnum, P.I.,Stringfellow Hawke ofAirwolf, and the characters ofThe A-Team were characters whose experiences in Vietnam were more frequently worked into plot lines. They were part of an early 1980s tendency to rehabilitate the image of the Vietnam vet in the public eye.[citation needed]
The documentaryIn the Shadow of the Blade (released in 2004) reunited Vietnam veterans and families of the war dead with a restored UH-1 "Huey" helicopter in a cross-country journey to tell the stories of Americans affected by the war.
An example in print isMarvel Comics'the Punisher, also known as Frank Castle. Castle learned all of his combat techniques from his time as a Marine as well as from his three tours of combat during Vietnam. It is also where he acquired his urge to punish the guilty, which goes on to be a defining trait in Castles' character.
The Avenger Vet evolved in the context of the wave of exploitation films produced in the latter half of the 1960s and the early 1970s, that although coterminous with the course of the war, were part of the phenomenon of psychic denial and collective amnesia about Vietnam that characterized American consciousness during that era. These films might most properly be called "Vetsploitation"5 films. Like the network television shows about the era, they were not directly about the war, but instead focused on returning servicemen "as freaked out [losers] who replayed the Vietnam war by committing violence against others or themselves. Vets were time bombs waiting to go off, a new genre of bogeymen (Gibson 3). Note 5, p. 51: They existed side by side with Blaxploitation, Femsploitation, and Teensploitation films in the world of "B" cinema.
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