The nameViệt Nam (pronounced[viə̂tˀnāːm],chữ Hán:越南), literally "Viet South", means "Viet of the South" per Vietnamese word order or "South of the Viet" perClassical Chinese word order.[16] A variation of the name,Nanyue (or Nam Việt,南越), was first documented in the 2nd century BC.[17] The term "Việt" (Yue) (Chinese:越; pinyin:Yuè; Cantonese Yale:Yuht; Wade–Giles:Yüeh4; Vietnamese:Việt) inEarly Middle Chinese was first written using thelogograph "戉" for an axe (a homophone), inoracle bone and bronze inscriptions of the lateShang dynasty (c. 1200 BC), and later as "越".[18] At that time, it referred to a people or chieftain to the northwest of the Shang.[19] In the early 8th century BC, a tribe on the middleYangtze were called theYangyue, a term later used for peoples further south.[19]
Between the 7th and 4th centuries BC, 'Yue'/'Việt' referred to theState of Yue in the lower Yangtze basin and its people.[18][19] From the 3rd century BC, the term was used for the non-Chinese populations of southern China and northern Vietnam, with particular ethnic groups calledMinyue,Ouyue, Luoyue (Vietnamese:Lạc Việt), etc., collectively called theBaiyue (Bách Việt,Chinese:百越; pinyin:Bǎiyuè; Cantonese Yale:Baak Yuet; Vietnamese:Bách Việt; lit. 'Hundred Yue/Viet').[18][19][20]
The term 'Baiyue'/'Bách Việt' first appeared in the bookLüshi Chunqiu compiled around 239 BC.[21] By the 17th and 18th centuries AD, educated Vietnamese apparently referred to themselves asngười Việt (Viet people) orngười Nam (southern people).[22]
Người Việt 𠊛越 written in chữ Nôm
The formViệt Nam (越南) is first recorded in the 16th-century oracular poemSấm Trạng Trình. The name has also been found on 12steles carved in the 16th and 17th centuries, including one at Bao Lam Pagoda inHải Phòng that dates to 1558.[23] In 1802,Nguyễn Phúc Ánh (who later became Emperor Gia Long) established theNguyễn dynasty. In the second year of his rule, he asked theJiaqing Emperor of theQing dynasty to confer on him the title 'King of Nam Việt / Nanyue' (南越 in Chinese character) after seizing power in Annam. The Emperor refused because the name was related toZhao Tuo's Nanyue, which included the regions ofGuangxi andGuangdong in southern China. The Qing Emperor, therefore, decided to call the area "Việt Nam" instead,[j][25] meaning "South of the Viet" perClassical Chinese word order but the Vietnamese understood it as "Viet of the South" per Vietnamese word order.[16] Between 1804 and 1813, the name Vietnam was used officially by Emperor Gia Long.[j] It was revived in the early 20th century inPhan Bội Châu'sHistory of the Loss of Vietnam, and later by theVietnamese Nationalist Party (VNQDĐ).[26] The country was usually called Annam until 1945, when theimperial government inHuế adoptedViệt Nam.[27]
Archaeological excavations have revealed the existence of humans in what is now Vietnam as early as thePaleolithic age. Stone artefacts excavated inGia Lai province have been claimed to date to 780,000 years ago,[28] based on associated find oftektites, however this claim has been challenged because tektites are often found in archaeological sites of various ages in Vietnam.[29]Homo erectus fossils dating to around 500,000 BC have been found in caves inLạng Sơn andNghệ An provinces in northern Vietnam.[30] The oldestHomo sapiens fossils from mainland Southeast Asia are ofMiddle Pleistocene provenance, and include isolated tooth fragments from Tham Om and Hang Hum.[31][32][33] Teeth attributed toHomo sapiens from theLate Pleistocene have been found at Dong Can,[34] and from the EarlyHolocene at Mai Da Dieu,[35][36] Lang Gao[37][38] and Lang Cuom.[39] Areas comprising what is now Vietnam participated in theMaritime Jade Road, as ascertained by archaeological research.[40][41][42][43]
In AD 938, the Vietnamese lordNgô Quyền defeated the forces of the ChineseSouthern Han state atBạch Đằng River and achieved full independence for Vietnam in 939 after a millennium of Chinese domination.[63][64][65] By the 960s, the dynasticĐại Việt (Great Viet) kingdom was established, Vietnamese society enjoyed a golden era under the Lý andTrần dynasties. During the rule of the Trần dynasty, Đại Việt repelled threeMongol invasions.[66][67] Meanwhile, theMahāyāna branch ofBuddhism flourished and became the state religion.[65][68] Following the 1406–7Ming–Hồ War, which overthrew theHồ dynasty, Vietnamese independence wasinterrupted briefly by the ChineseMing dynasty, but was restored byLê Lợi, the founder of theLê dynasty.[69] The Vietnamese polity reached their zenith in the Lê dynasty of the 15th century, especially during the reign of emperorLê Thánh Tông (1460–1497).[70][71] Between the 11th and 18th centuries, the Vietnamese polity expanded southward in a gradual process known asNam tiến ("Southward expansion"),[72] eventually conquering the kingdom ofChampa and part of theKhmer Kingdom.[73][74][75]
From the 16th century onward, civil strife and frequent political infighting engulfed much of Đại Việt. First, the Chinese-supportedMạc dynasty challenged the Lê dynasty's power.[76] After the Mạc dynasty was defeated, the Lê dynasty was nominally reinstalled. Actual power, however, was divided between the northernTrịnh lords and the southernNguyễn lords, who engaged in acivil war for more than four decades before a truce was called in the 1670s.[77] Vietnam was divided into North (Trịnh) and South (Nguyễn) from 1600 to 1777. During this period, the Nguyễn expanded southern Vietnam into theMekong Delta, annexing theCentral Highlands and the Khmer lands in the Mekong Delta.[73][75][78] The division of the country ended a century later when theTây Sơn brothers helped Trịnh to end Nguyễn, they also established new dynasty and ended Trịnh. However, their rule did not last long, and they were defeated by the remnants of the Nguyễn lords, led byNguyễn Ánh. Nguyễn Ánh unified Vietnam, and established theNguyễn dynasty, ruling under the nameGia Long.[78]
In the 1500s, thePortuguese explored the Vietnamese coast and reportedly erected astele on theChàm Islands to mark their presence.[79] By 1533, they began landing in the Vietnamese delta but were forced to leave because of local turmoil and fighting. They also had less interest in the territory than they did in China and Japan.[79] After they had settled inMacau andNagasaki to begin the profitable Macau–Japan trade route, the Portuguese began to involve themselves in trade withHội An.[79] Portuguese traders andJesuit missionaries under thePadroado system were active in both Vietnamese realms ofĐàng Trong (Cochinchina or Quinan) andĐàng Ngoài (Tonkin) in the 17th century.[80] TheDutch also tried to establish contact with Quinan in 1601 but failed to sustain a presence there after several violent encounters with the locals. TheDutch East India Company (VOC) only managed to establish official relations with Tonkin in the spring of 1637 after leavingDejima in Japan to establish trade forsilk.[81] Meanwhile, in 1613, the firstEnglish attempt to establish contact with Hội An failed following a violent incident involving theEast India Company. By 1672 the English did establish relations with Tonkin and were allowed to reside inPhố Hiến.[82]
Between 1615 and 1753, French traders also engaged in trade in Vietnam.[83][84] The first French missionaries arrived in 1658, under the PortuguesePadroado. From its foundation, theParis Foreign Missions Society underPropaganda Fide actively sent missionaries to Vietnam, entering Cochinchina first in 1664 and Tonkin first in 1666.[85] SpanishDominicans joined the Tonkin mission in 1676, andFranciscans were in Cochinchina from 1719 to 1834. The Vietnamese authorities began[when?] to feel threatened by continuousChristianisation activities.[86] After several Catholic missionaries were detained, theFrench Navy intervened in 1843 to free them, as the kingdom was perceived asxenophobic.[87] In a series of conquests from 1859 to 1885,France eroded Vietnam's sovereignty.[88] At thesiege of Tourane in 1858, France was aided bySpain (with Filipino,Latin American, and Spanish troops from thePhilippines)[89] and perhaps some Tonkinese Catholics.[90] After the1862 Treaty, and especially after France completely conqueredLower Cochinchina in 1867, theVăn Thân movement of scholar-gentry class arose and committed violence againstCatholics across central and northern Vietnam.[91]
Between 1862 and 1867, the southern third of the country became theFrench colony of Cochinchina.[92] By 1884, the entire country was under French rule, with the central and northern parts of Vietnam separated into the two protectorates ofAnnam andTonkin. The three entities were formally integrated into the union ofFrench Indochina in 1887.[93][94] The French administration imposed significant political and cultural changes on Vietnamese society.[95] A Western-style system of modern education introduced newhumanist values.[96] Most French settlers in Indochina were concentrated in Cochinchina, particularly inSaigon, and inHanoi, the colony's capital.[97]
During the colonial period, guerrillas of the royalistCần Vương movement rebelled against French rule and massacred around a third ofVietnam's Christian population.[98] After a decade of resistance, they were defeated in the 1890s by the Catholics in reprisal for their earlier massacres.[99][100] Another large-scale rebellion, theThái Nguyên uprising, was also suppressed heavily.[101] The French developed aplantation economy to promote export oftobacco,indigo,tea andcoffee.[102] However, they largely ignored the increasing demands for civil rights andself-government. An increasing dissatisfaction, even led to half-hearted, badly co-ordinated, and still worsely executed plots to oust the French, like the infamousHanoi Poison Plot of 1908.
In 1941, theViệt Minh, a nationalist liberation movement based on acommunist ideology, emerged under the Vietnamese revolutionary leaderHồ Chí Minh. The Việt Minh sought independence for Vietnam from France and the end of theJapanese occupation.[111][112] After the military defeat of Japan in World War II and the fall of its puppet governmentEmpire of Vietnam in August 1945, Saigon's administrative services collapsed and chaos, riots, and murder were widespread.[113] The Việt Minh occupiedHanoi and proclaimed a provisional government, which asserted national independence on 2 September.[112]
The colonial administration was thereby ended and French Indochina was dissolved under the Geneva Accords of 21 July 1954 into three countries—Vietnam, and the kingdoms ofCambodia andLaos. Vietnam was further divided into North and South administrative regions at theDemilitarised Zone, roughly along the17th parallel north (pending elections scheduled for July 1956[k]). A 300-day period of free movement was permitted, during which almost a million northerners, mainly Catholics, moved south, fearing persecution by the communists. This migration was in large part aided by the United States military throughOperation Passage to Freedom.[123][124] Thepartition of Vietnam by the Geneva Accords was not intended to be permanent, and stipulated that Vietnam would be reunited after the elections.[125] But in 1955, the southern State of Vietnam's prime minister,Ngô Đình Diệm, toppledBảo Đại in a fraudulentreferendum organised by his brotherNgô Đình Nhu, and proclaimed himself president of theRepublic of Vietnam.[125] This effectively replaced the internationally recognisedState of Vietnam by theRepublic of Vietnam in the south—supported by the United States, France,Laos,Republic of China and Thailand—and Hồ'sDemocratic Republic of Vietnam in the north, supported by the Soviet Union, Sweden,[126]Khmer Rouge, and thePeople's Republic of China.[125]
From 1953 to 1956, theNorth Vietnamese government institutedagrarian reforms including "rent reduction" and "land reform", which resulted in significantpolitical repression.[127] This included 13,500 to as many as 100,000 executions.[128][129] In the South, Diệm countered North Vietnamese subversion (including the assassination of over 450 South Vietnamese officials in 1956) by detaining tens of thousands of suspected communists in "political reeducation centres".[130][131] This programme incarcerated many non-communists, but was successful at curtailingcommunist activity in the country, if only for a time.[132] The North Vietnamese government claimed that 2,148 people were killed in the process by November 1957.[133] The pro-HanoiViệt Cộng began a guerrilla campaign inSouth Vietnam in the late 1950s to overthrow Diệm's government.[134] From 1960, the Soviet Union and North Vietnam signed treaties providing for further Soviet military support.[135][136][137]
In 1963, Buddhist discontent with Diệm's Catholic regime erupted intomass demonstrations, leading to a violent government crackdown.[138] This led to thecollapse of Diệm's relationship with the United States, and ultimately to a1963 coup in whichhe and Nhu were assassinated.[139] The Diệm era was followed by more than a dozen successive military governments, before the pairing of Air MarshalNguyễn Cao Kỳ and GeneralNguyễn Văn Thiệu took control in mid-1965.[140] Thiệu gradually outmaneuvered Kỳ and cemented his grip on power in fraudulent elections in 1967 and 1971.[141] During this political instability, the communists began to gain ground. To support South Vietnam's struggle against the communist insurgency, the United States used the 1964Gulf of Tonkin incident as a pretext for increasing its contribution of military advisers.[142] US forces became involved in ground combat operations by 1965, and at their peak several years later, numbered more than 500,000.[143][144] The US also engaged insustained aerial bombing. Meanwhile, China and the Soviet Union provided North Vietnam with significant material aid and 15,000 combat advisers.[135][136][145] Communist forces supplying the Việt Cộng carried supplies along theHồ Chí Minh trail, which passed throughLaos.[146]
On 2 July 1976, North and South Vietnam were merged to form the Socialist Republic of Vietnam.[154] The war had devastated Vietnam and killed 966,000 to 3.8 million people.[155][156][157] A 1974 US Senate subcommittee estimated nearly 1.4 millionVietnamese civilians were killed or wounded between 1965 and 1974—including 415,000 killed.[158][159] In its aftermath, underLê Duẩn's administration, there were no mass executions of South Vietnamese who had collaborated with the US or the defunct South Vietnamese government, confounding Western fears,[160] but up to 300,000 South Vietnamese were sent toreeducation camps, where many endured torture, starvation, and disease while being forced to perform hard labour.[161] The government embarked on a mass campaign ofcollectivisation of farms and factories.[162] Many fled the country following the conclusion of the war.[163] In 1978, in response to theKhmer Rouge government of Cambodia ordering massacres of Vietnamese residents in the border villages in the districts ofAn Giang andKiên Giang,[164] the Vietnamese militaryinvaded Cambodia and removed them from power after occupyingPhnom Penh.[165] The intervention was a success, resulting in the establishment of a new, pro-Vietnam socialist government, thePeople's Republic of Kampuchea, which ruled until 1989.[166] However, this worsened relations with China, which had supported the Khmer Rouge. China later launched abrief incursion into northern Vietnam in 1979, causing Vietnam to rely even more heavily on Soviet economic and military aid, while mistrust of theChinese government escalated.[167]
1980s to present
At theSixth National Congress of theCommunist Party of Vietnam (CPV) in December 1986, reformist politicians replaced the "old guard" government with new leadership.[168][169] The reformers were led by 71-year-oldNguyễn Văn Linh, who became the party's new general secretary.[168] He and the reformers implemented a series offree-market reforms known asĐổi Mới ("Renovation") that carefully managed the transition from aplanned economy to a "socialist-oriented market economy".[170][171] Although the authority of the state remained unchallenged underĐổi Mới, the government encouragedprivate ownership of farms and factories, economic deregulation, and foreign investment, while maintaining control over strategic industries.[171][172] Subsequently, Vietnam's economy achieved strong growth in agricultural and industrial production, construction, exports, and foreign investment, although these reforms also resulted in a rise in income inequality and gender disparities.[173][174][175]
Vietnam is located on the easternIndochinese Peninsula between the latitudes8° and24°N, and the longitudes102° and110°E. It covers a total area of 331,210 km2 (127,881 sq mi)[8] or 331,699 km2 (128,070 sq mi).[9] The combined length of the country's land boundaries is 4,639 km (2,883 mi), and its coastline is 3,444 km (2,140 mi) long.[177] At its narrowest point in the centralQuảng Bình province, the country is as little as 50 kilometres (31 mi) across, though it widens to around 600 kilometres (370 mi) in the north.[178] Vietnam's land is mostly hilly and densely forested, with level land covering no more than 20%. Mountains account for 40% of the country's land area,[179] and tropical forests cover around 42%.[180] The Red River Delta in the north, a flat, roughly triangular region covering 15,000 km2 (5,792 sq mi),[181] is smaller but more intensely developed and more densely populated than theMekong River Delta in the south. Once an inlet of theGulf of Tonkin, it has been filled in over the millennia by riverinealluvial deposits.[182][183] The delta, covering about 40,000 km2 (15,444 sq mi), is a low-level plain no more than 3 metres (9.8 ft)above sea level at any point. It is criss-crossed by a maze of rivers and canals, which carry so much sediment that the delta advances 60 to 80 metres (196.9 to 262.5 ft) into the sea every year.[184][185] Theexclusive economic zone of Vietnam covers 417,663 km2 (161,261 sq mi) in theSouth China Sea.[186]
Hoàng Liên Sơnmountain range, the range that includesFansipan which is the highest summit on the Indochinese Peninsula
Southern Vietnam is divided into coastal lowlands, the mountains of theAnnamite Range, and extensive forests. Comprising five relatively flat plateaus ofbasalt soil, the highlands account for 16% of the country'sarable land and 22% of its total forested land.[187] The soil in much of the southern part of Vietnam is relatively low in nutrients as a result of intense cultivation.[188] Several minorearthquakes have been recorded.[189][190] The northern part of the country consists mostly of highlands and the Red River Delta.Fansipan (also known as Phan Xi Păng), which is located inLào Cai province, is the highest mountain in Vietnam, standing 3,143 m (10,312 ft) high.[191] From north to south Vietnam, the country also hasnumerous islands;Phú Quốc is the largest.[192] TheHang Sơn Đoòng Cave is considered the largest known cave passage in the world since its discovery in 2009. TheBa Bể Lake andMekong River are the largest lake and longest river in the country.[193][194][195]
Due to differences in latitude and the marked variety intopographical relief, Vietnam's climate tends to vary considerably for each region.[196] During the winter or dry season, extending roughly from November to April, themonsoon winds usually blow from the northeast along the Chinese coast and across the Gulf of Tonkin, picking up considerable moisture.[197] The average annual temperature is generally higher in the plains than in the mountains, especially in southern Vietnam compared to the north. Temperatures vary less in the southern plains around Ho Chi Minh City and the Mekong Delta, ranging from between 21 and 35 °C (70 and 95 °F) over the year.[198] In Hanoi and the surrounding areas of the Red River Delta, the temperatures are much lower between 15 and 33 °C (59 and 91 °F).[198] Seasonal variations in the mountains, plateaus, and the northernmost areas are much more dramatic, with temperatures varying from 3 °C (37 °F) in December and January to 37 °C (99 °F) in July and August.[199] During winter, snow occasionally falls over the highest peaks of the far northern mountains near the Chinese border.[200] Vietnam receives high rates ofprecipitation in the form of rainfall with an average amount from 1,500 to 2,000 mm (60 to 80 in) during the monsoon seasons; this often causes flooding, especially in the cities with poor drainage systems.[201] The country is also affected bytropical depressions,tropical storms andtyphoons.[201] Vietnam is one of the most vulnerable countries to climate change, with 55% of its population living in low-elevation coastal areas.[202][203]
Vietnam is also home to 1,438 species of freshwatermicroalgae, constituting 9.6% of all microalgae species, as well as 794 aquaticinvertebrates and 2,458 species of sea fish.[204] In recent years, 13genera, 222 species, and 30taxa of flora have been newly described in Vietnam.[204] Six new mammal species, including thesaola,giant muntjac andTonkin snub-nosed monkey have also been discovered, along with one new bird species, the endangeredEdwards's pheasant.[207] In the late 1980s, a small population ofJavan rhinoceros was found in Cát Tiên National Park. However, the last individual of the species in Vietnam was reportedly shot in 2010.[208] In agriculturalgenetic diversity, Vietnam is one of the world's twelve originalcultivar centres. The Vietnam National Cultivar Gene Bank preserves 12,300 cultivars of 115 species.[204] The Vietnamese government spent US$49.07 million on the preservation of biodiversity in 2004 alone and has established 126 conservation areas, including 30national parks.[204]
In Vietnam, wildlifepoaching has become a major concern. In 2000, anon-governmental organisation (NGO) calledEducation for Nature – Vietnam was founded to instill in the population the importance of wildlife conservation in the country.[209] In the years that followed, another NGO called GreenViet was formed by Vietnamese youngsters for the enforcement of wildlife protection. Through collaboration between the NGOs and local authorities, many local poaching syndicates were crippled by their leaders' arrests.[209] A study released in 2018 revealed Vietnam is a destination for the illegal export ofrhinoceros horns fromSouth Africa due to the demand for them as a medicine and a status symbol.[210][211]
The main environmental concern that persists in Vietnam today is the legacy of the use of the chemicalherbicideAgent Orange, which continues to causebirth defects and many health problems in the Vietnamese population. In the southern and central areas affected most by the chemical's use during the Vietnam War, nearly 4.8 million Vietnamese people have been exposed to it and suffered from its effects.[212][213][214] In 2012, approximately 50 years after the war,[215] the US began a US$43 million joint clean-up project in the former chemical storage areas in Vietnam to take place in stages.[213][216] Following the completion of the first phase inĐà Nẵng in late 2017,[217] the US announced its commitment to clean other sites, especially in the heavily impacted site ofBiên Hòa.[218]
The Vietnamese government spends overVNĐ10 trillion each year ($431.1 million) for monthly allowances and the physical rehabilitation of victims of the chemicals.[219] In 2018, the Japanese engineering groupShimizu Corporation, working with Vietnamese military, built a plant for the treatment of soil polluted by Agent Orange. Plant construction costs were funded by the company itself.[220][221] One of the long-term plans to restore southern Vietnam's damagedecosystems is through the use ofreforestation efforts. The Vietnamese government began doing this at the end of the war. It started by replantingmangrove forests in the Mekong Delta regions and inCần Giờ outside Hồ Chí Minh City, where mangroves are important to ease (though not eliminate) flood conditions during monsoon seasons.[222] The country had a 2019Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 5.35/10, ranking it 104th globally out of 172 countries.[223]
Apart from herbicide problems,arsenic in theground water in the Mekong and Red River Deltas has also become a major concern.[224][225] And most notoriously,unexploded ordnances (UXO) pose dangers to humans and wildlife—another bitter legacy from the long wars.[226] As part of the continuous campaign todemine/remove UXOs, several internationalbomb removal agencies from the United Kingdom,[227] Denmark,[228]South Korea[229] and the US[230] have been providing assistance. The Vietnam government spends over VNĐ1 trillion ($44 million) annually on demining operations and additional hundreds of billions of đồng for treatment, assistance, rehabilitation, vocational training and resettlement of the victims of UXOs.[231]
Thegeneral secretary of the CPV performs numerous key administrative functions, controlling the party's national organisation.[232] Theprime minister is thehead of government, presiding over a council of ministers composed of five deputy prime ministers and the heads of 26 ministries and commissions. Only political organisations affiliated with or endorsed by the CPV are permitted to contest elections in Vietnam. These include theVietnamese Fatherland Front and worker andtrade unionist parties.[232]
In 2023, a three-person collective leadership was responsible for governing Vietnam. PresidentVõ Văn Thưởng,[238] Prime MinisterPhạm Minh Chính (since 2021)[239] and the most powerful leaderNguyễn Phú Trọng (since 2011) as the Communist Party of Vietnam's General Secretary.[240] On 22 May 2024,Tô Lâm, who previously served as theMinister of Public Security, was voted as the president of Vietnam by the National Assembly, after Võ Văn Thưởng resigned in March of the same year due to corruption charges against him.[241] On 3 August 2024, Tô Lâm, who is also serving as the president, was elected by the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Vietnam as the general secretary following the death of Nguyễn Phú Trọng on 19 July 2024.[242][243] On 21 October 2024, the National Assembly appointedarmy generalLương Cường as president, succeeding Tô Lâm.[244]
Vietnam is divided into 57provinces (Vietnamese:Tỉnh,chữ Hán:省).[245] There are also sixmunicipalities (thành phố trực thuộc trung ương), which are administratively on the same level as provinces.
Provinces are subdivided intoprovincial municipalities (thành phố trực thuộc tỉnh, 'city under province'),townships (thị xã) andcounties (huyện), which are in turn subdivided into towns (thị trấn) orcommunes (xã).
Centrally controlled municipalities are subdivided intodistricts (quận) and counties, which are further subdivided intowards (phường).
US Secretary of StateRex Tillerson accompanies US PresidentDonald Trump to a commercial deal signing ceremony with Vietnamese President on 12 November 2017.
Throughout its history, Vietnam's main foreign relationship has been with various Chinese dynasties.[246] Following the partition of Vietnam in 1954, North Vietnam maintained relations with theEastern Bloc, South Vietnam maintained relations with theWestern Bloc.[246] Despite these differences, Vietnam's sovereign principles and insistence on cultural independence have been laid down in numerous documents over the centuries before its independence. These include the 11th-century patriotic poem "Nam quốc sơn hà" and the 1428 proclamation of independence "Bình Ngô đại cáo". Though China and Vietnam are now formally at peace,[246]significant territorial tensions remain between the two countries over the South China Sea.[247] Vietnam holds membership in 63 international organisations, including theUnited Nations (UN),Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN),Non-Aligned Movement (NAM),International Organisation of the Francophonie (La Francophonie), andWorld Trade Organization (WTO). It also maintains relations with over 650 non-governmental organisations.[248] As of 2010 Vietnam had established diplomatic relations with 178 countries.[249]
Vietnam's current foreign policy is to consistently implement a policy of independence, self-reliance, peace, co-operation, and development, as well openness, diversification,multilateralisation with international relations.[250][251] The country declares itself a friend and partner of all countries in the international community, regardless of their political affiliation, by actively taking part in international and regional cooperative development projects.[171][250] Since the 1990s, Vietnam has taken several key steps to restore diplomatic ties with capitalistWestern countries. It already had relations with communist Western countries in the decades prior.[252] Relations with the United Statesbegan improving in August 1995 with both states upgrading theirliaison offices to embassy status.[253] As diplomatic ties between the two governments grew, the United States opened aconsulate general in Ho Chi Minh City while Vietnam openedits consulate in San Francisco. Full diplomatic relations were also restored with New Zealand, which opened its embassy in Hanoi in 1995;[254] Vietnam established an embassy inWellington in 2003.[255] President of the United States,Bill Clinton, made a historic visit to Vietnam in November 2000. He was the first U.S. leader ever to officially visit Hanoi and the first to visit Vietnam since U.S. troops withdrew from the country in 1975.[256] Pakistan also reopened its embassy in Hanoi in October 2000, with Vietnam reopening its embassy inIslamabad in December 2005 and trade office inKarachi in November 2005.[257][258] In May 2016, US PresidentBarack Obama further normalised relations with Vietnam after he announced the lifting of an armsembargo on sales of lethal arms to Vietnam.[259] Despite their historical past, today Vietnam is considered to be a potential ally of the United States, especially in the geopolitical context of theterritorial disputes in the South China Sea and in containment ofChinese expansionism.[260][261][262]
Throughout the history of Vietnam, its economy has been based largely onagriculture—primarilywet rice cultivation.[280]Bauxite, an important material in the production ofaluminium, is mined in central Vietnam.[281] Since reunification, the country's economy is shaped primarily by the CPV throughFive Year Plans decided upon at the plenary sessions of the Central Committee and national congresses.[282] Thecollectivisation of farms, factories, and capital goods was carried out as part of the establishment of central planning, with millions of people working for state enterprises. Under strict state control, Vietnam's economy continued to be plagued by inefficiency,corruption in state-owned enterprises, poor quality and underproduction.[283][284] With the decline in economic aid from its main trading partner, the Soviet Union, following the erosion of theEastern bloc in the late 1980s, and the subsequentcollapse of the Soviet Union, as well as the negative impacts of the post-wartrade embargo imposed by the United States,[285][286] Vietnam began to liberalise its trade bydevaluing its exchange rate to increase exports and embarked on a policy of economic development.[287]
In 1986, theSixth National Congress of the CPV introducedsocialist-oriented market economic reforms as part of theĐổi Mới reform programme.Private ownership began to be encouraged in industry, commerce and agriculture and state enterprises wererestructured to operate under market constraints.[288][289] This led to the five-year economic plans being replaced by the socialist-oriented market mechanism.[290] As a result of these reforms, Vietnam achieved approximately 8% annualgross domestic product (GDP) growth between 1990 and 1997.[291][292] The United States ended its economic embargo against Vietnam in early 1994.[293] Although the1997 Asian financial crisis caused an economic slowdown to 4–5% growth per year, its economy began to recover in 1999,[288] and grew at around 7% per year from 2000 to 2005, one of the fastest in the world.[294][295] On 11 January 2007, Vietnam became the 150th member of theWTO (World Trade Organization).[296] According to theGeneral Statistics Office of Vietnam (GSO), growth remained strong despite thelate-2000s global recession, holding at 6.8% in 2010. Vietnam's year-on-year inflation rate reached 11.8% in December 2010 and the currency, theVietnamese đồng, was devalued three times.[297][298]
Deeppoverty, defined as the percentage of the population living on less than $1 per day, has declined significantly in Vietnam and the relative poverty rate is now less than that of China, India and thePhilippines.[299] This decline can be attributed toequitable economic policies aimed at improvingliving standards and preventing the rise ofinequality.[300] These policies have included egalitarian land distribution during the initial stages of theĐổi Mới programme, investment in poorer remote areas, and subsidising of education and healthcare.[301][302] Since the early 2000s, Vietnam has applied sequenced trade liberalisation, a two-track approach opening some sectors of the economy to international markets.[300][303] Manufacturing,information technology and high-tech industries now form a large and fast-growing part of the national economy. Although Vietnam is a relative newcomer to theoil industry, it is the third-largest oil producer in Southeast Asia with a total 2011 output of 318,000 barrels per day (50,600 m3/d).[304] In 2010, Vietnam was ranked as the eighth-largest crudepetroleum producer in the Asia and Pacific region.[305] The US bought the biggest share of Vietnam's exports,[306] whilegoods from China were the most popular Vietnamese import.[307]
As a result of severalland reform measures, Vietnam has become a major exporter of agricultural products. It is now the world's largest producer ofcashew nuts, with a one-third global share;[310] the largest producer ofblack pepper, accounting for one-third of the world's market;[311] and the second-largestrice exporter in the world afterThailand since the 1990s.[312] Subsequently, Vietnam is also the world's second largest exporter ofcoffee.[313] The country has the highest proportion of land use forpermanent crops together with other states in theGreater Mekong Subregion.[314] Other primary exports includetea,rubber and fishery products. Agriculture's share of Vietnam's GDP has fallen in recent decades, declining from 42% in 1989 to 20% in 2006 as production in other sectors of the economy has risen.
Seafood
The overall fisheries production of Vietnam from capture fisheries andaquaculture was 5.6 million MT in 2011 and 6.7 million MT in 2016. The output of Vietnam's fisheries sector has seen strong growth, which could be attributed to the continued expansion of the aquaculture sub-sector.[315]
Vietnamese science students working on anexperiment in their university lab
According to theUNESCO Institute for Statistics, Vietnam devoted 0.19% of its GDP to science research and development in 2011.[325] Vietnam was ranked 44th in theGlobal Innovation Index in 2024, it has increased its ranking considerably since 2012, where it was ranked 76th.[326][327] Between 2005 and 2014, the number of Vietnamese scientific publications recorded in Thomson Reuters'Web of Science increased at a rate well above the average for Southeast Asia, albeit from a modest starting point.[328] Publications focus mainly onlife sciences (22%),physics (13%) andengineering (13%), which is consistent with recent advances in the production of diagnostic equipment and shipbuilding.[328]
Tourism is an important element of economic activity in the nation, contributing 7.5% of the total GDP. Vietnam hosted roughly 13 million tourists in 2017, an increase of 29.1% over the previous year, making it one of the fastest growing tourist destinations in the world. The vast majority of the tourists in the country, some 9.7 million, came from Asia; namely China (4 million),South Korea (2.6 million), and Japan (798,119).[329] Vietnam also attracts large numbers of visitors from Europe, with almost 1.9 million visitors in 2017; most European visitors came from Russia (574,164), followed by the United Kingdom (283,537), France (255,396), and Germany (199,872). Other significant international arrivals by nationality include the United States (614,117) and Australia (370,438).[329]
The most visited destinations in Vietnam are the largest city, Ho Chi Minh City, with over 5.8 million international arrivals, followed by Hanoi with 4.6 million andHạ Long, including Hạ Long Bay with 4.4 million arrivals. All three are ranked in the top 100 most visited cities in the world.[330] Vietnam is home to eightUNESCO World Heritage Sites. In 2018,Travel + Leisure rankedHội An as one of the world's top 15 best destinations to visit.[331]
Much of Vietnam's modern transportation network can trace its roots to the French colonial era when it was used to facilitate the transportation ofraw materials to its main ports. It was extensively expanded and modernised following the partition of Vietnam.[332] Vietnam's road system includes national roads administered at the central level, provincial roads managed at the provincial level, district roads managed at the district level, urban roads managed by cities and towns and commune roads managed at the commune level.[333] In 2010, Vietnam's road system had a total length of about 188,744 kilometres (117,280 mi) of which 93,535 kilometres (58,120 mi) areasphalt roads comprising national, provincial and district roads.[333] The length of the national road system is about 15,370 kilometres (9,550 mi) with 15,085 kilometres (9,373 mi) of its length paved. The provincial road system has around 27,976 kilometres (17,383 mi) of paved roads while 50,474 kilometres (31,363 mi) district roads are paved.[333]
Bicycles, motorcycles andmotor scooters remain the most popular forms of road transport in the country, a legacy of the French, though the number of privately owned cars has been increasing in recent years.[334] Public buses operated by private companies are the main mode of long-distance travel for much of the population.Traffic collisions remain the major safety issue of Vietnamese transportation with an average of 30 people losing their lives daily.[335]Traffic congestion is a growing problem in both Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City especially with the growth of individual car ownership.[336][337] Vietnam's primary cross-country rail service is theReunification Express from Ho Chi Minh City to Hanoi, a distance of nearly 1,726 kilometres (1,072 mi).[338] From Hanoi, railway lines branch out to the northeast, north, and west; the eastbound line runs from Hanoi to Hạ Long Bay, the northbound line from Hanoi toThái Nguyên, and the northeast line from Hanoi to Lào Cai. In 2009, Vietnam and Japan signed a deal to build ahigh-speed railway—shinkansen (bullet train)—using Japanese technology.[339] Vietnamese engineers were sent to Japan to receive training in the operation and maintenance of high-speed trains.[340] The planned railway will be a 1,545 kilometres (960 mi)-long express route serving a total of 23 stations, including Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City, with 70% of its route running on bridges and through tunnels.[341][342] The trains will travel at a maximum speed of 350 kilometres (220 mi) per hour.[342][343] Plans for the high-speed rail line, however, have been postponed after the Vietnamese government decided to prioritise the development of both theHanoi andHo Chi Minh City metros and expand road networks instead.[338][344][345]
The port ofHai Phong is one of the largest and busiest container ports in Vietnam.
Vietnam's energy sector is dominated largely by the state-controlledVietnam Electricity Group (EVN). As of 2017, EVN made up about 61.4% of the country's power generation system with a total power capacity of 25,884MW.[351] Other energy sources arePetroVietnam (4,435 MW),Vinacomin (1,785 MW) and 10,031 MW frombuild–operate–transfer (BOT) investors.[352]
The household gas sector in Vietnam is dominated by PetroVietnam, which controls nearly 70% of the country's domestic market forliquefied petroleum gas (LPG).[354] Since 2011, the company also operates five renewable energy power plants including the Nhơn Trạch 2 Thermal Power Plant (750 MW), Phú Quý Wind Power Plant (6 MW), Hủa Na Hydro-power Plant (180 MW), Dakdrinh Hydro-power Plant (125 MW) and Vũng Áng 1 Thermal Power Plant (1,200 MW).[355]
According to statistics fromBP, Vietnam is listed among the 52 countries that haveproven crude oil reserves. In 2015 the reserve was approximately 4.4 billion barrels ranking Vietnam first place in Southeast Asia, while theproven gas reserves were about 0.6 trillion cubic metres (tcm) and ranking it third in Southeast Asia afterIndonesia andMalaysia.[356]
Telecommunications services in Vietnam are wholly provided by the Vietnam Post and Telecommunications General Corporation (now theVNPT Group) which is astate-owned company.[357] The VNPT retained its monopoly until 1986. The telecom sector was reformed in 1995 when the Vietnamese government began to implement a competitive policy with the creation of two domestic telecommunication companies, the Military Electronic and Telecommunication Company (Viettel, which is wholly owned by the Vietnamese Ministry of Defence) and the Saigon Post and Telecommunication Company (SPT or SaigonPostel), with 18% of it owned by VNPT.[357] VNPT's monopoly was finally ended by the government in 2003 with the issuance of a decree.[358] By 2012, the top three telecom operators in Vietnam were Viettel,Vinaphone andMobiFone. The remaining companies included:EVNTelecom, Vietnammobile andS-Fone.[359] With the shift towards a moremarket-orientated economy, Vietnam's telecommunications market is continuously being reformed to attractforeign investment, which includes the supply of services and the establishment of nationwide telecom infrastructure.[360]
In rural areas of Vietnam,piped water systems are operated by a wide variety of institutions including a national organisation, people committees (local government), community groups, co-operatives and private companies.
Vietnam has 2,360 rivers with an average annual discharge of 310 billionm3. The rainy season accounts for 70% of the year's discharge.[361] Most of the country's urbanwater supply systems have been developed without proper management within the last 10 years. Based on a 2008 survey by the Vietnam Water Supply and Sewerage Association (VWSA), existing water production capacity exceeded demand, but service coverage is still sparse. Most of the clean water supply infrastructure is not widely developed. It is only available to a small proportion of the population with about one third of 727 district towns having some form of piped water supply.[362] There is also concern over the safety of existing water resources for urban and rural water supply systems. Most industrial factories release their untreatedwastewater directly into the water sources. Where the government does not take measures to address the issue, most domestic wastewater is discharged, untreated, back into the environment and pollutes thesurface water.[362]
In recent years, there have been some efforts and collaboration between local and foreign universities to develop access to safe water in the country by introducingwater filtration systems. There is a growing concern among local populations over the serious public health issues associated with water contamination caused by pollution as well as thehigh levels of arsenic ingroundwater sources.[363] The government of Netherlands has been providing aid focusing its investments mainly on water-related sectors includingwater treatment projects.[364][365][366] Regardingsanitation, 78% of Vietnam's population has access to"improved" sanitation—94% of the urban population and 70% of the rural population. However, there are still about 21 million people in the country lacking access to "improved" sanitation according to a survey conducted in 2015.[367] In 2018, the construction ministry said the country's water supply, and drainage industry had been applying hi-tech methods andinformation technology (IT) to sanitation issues but faced problems like limited funding, climate change, and pollution.[368] The health ministry has also announced that water inspection units will be established nationwide beginning in June 2019. Inspections are to be conducted without notice, since there have been many cases involving health issues caused by poor or polluted water supplies as well unhygienic conditions reported every year.[369]
As of 2021[update], the population of Vietnam stands at approximately 97.5 million people.[371] The population had grown significantly from the 1979 census, which showed the total population of reunified Vietnam to be 52.7 million.[372] According to the 2019 census, the country's population was 96,208,984.[2] Based on the 2019 census, 65.6% of the Vietnamese population live in rural areas while only 34.4% live in urban areas. The average growth rate of the urban population has recently increased which is attributed mainly to migration and rapid urbanisation.[2] The dominantViet or Kinh ethnic group constitute 82,085,826 people or 85.32% of the population.[2] Most of their population is concentrated in the country'salluvial deltas and coastal plains. As a majority ethnic group, the Kinh possess significant political and economic influence over the country.[370] Despite this, Vietnam is also home to various ethnic groups, of which54 are officially recognised, including theHmong,Dao,Tày,Thái andNùng.[373] Many ethnic minorities such as theMuong, who are closely related to the Kinh, dwell in the highlands which cover two-thirds of Vietnam's territory.[374]
Since the partition of Vietnam, the population of theCentral Highlands was almost exclusivelyDegar (including more than 40 tribal groups); however, the South Vietnamese government at the time enacted a programme of resettling Kinh in indigenous areas.[375][376] TheHoa (ethnicChinese) andKhmer Krom people are mainly lowlanders.[370][377] Throughout Vietnam's history, many Chinese people, largely fromSouth China, migrated to the country as administrators, merchants and even refugees.[378] Since the reunification in 1976, an increase of communist policies nationwide resulted in the nationalisation and confiscation of property especially from the Hoa in the south and the wealthy in cities. This led many of them to leave Vietnam.[379][380]
The number of people who live in urbanised areas in 2019 is 33,122,548 people (with the urbanisation rate at 34.4%).[2] Since 1986, Vietnam's urbanisation rates have surged rapidly after the Vietnamese government implemented the Đổi Mới economic programme, changing the system into a socialist one and liberalising property rights. As a result, Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City (the two major cities in the Red River Delta and Southeast regions respectively) increased their share of the total urban population from 8.5% and 24.9% to 15.9% and 31% respectively.[381] The Vietnamese government, through itsconstruction ministry, forecasts the country will have a 45% urbanisation rate by 2020 although it was confirmed to only be 34.4% according to the 2019 census.[2] Urbanisation is said to have a positive correlation with economic growth. Any country with higher urbanisation rates has a higher GDP growth rate.[382] Furthermore, the urbanisation movement in Vietnam is mainly between the rural areas and the country's Southeast region. Ho Chi Minh City has received a large number of migrants due mainly to better weather and economic opportunities.[383]
A study also shows that rural-to-urban area migrants have a higher standard of living than both non-migrants in rural areas and non-migrants in urban areas. This results in changes to economic structures. In 1985, agriculture made up 37.2% of Vietnam's GDP; in 2008, that number had declined to 18.5%.[384] In 1985, industry made up only 26.2% of Vietnam's GDP; by 2008, that number had increased to 43.2%. Urbanisation also helps to improve basic services which increase people's standards of living. Access to electricity grew from 14% of total households with electricity in 1993 to above 96% in 2009.[384] In terms of access to fresh water, data from 65 utility companies shows that only 12% of households in the area covered by them had access to the water network in 2002; by 2007, more than 70% of the population was connected. Though urbanisation has many benefits, it has some drawbacks since it creates more traffic, and air and water pollution.[384]
Many Vietnamese usemopeds for transportation, since they are relatively cheap and easy to operate. Their large numbers have been known to cause traffic congestion and air pollution in Vietnam. In the capital city alone, the number of mopeds increased from 0.5 million in 2001 to 4.7 million in 2013.[384] With rapid development, factories have sprung up which indirectly pollute the air and water, for example in the2016 Vietnam marine life disaster.[385] The government is intervening and attempting solutions to decrease air pollution by decreasing the number of motorcycles while increasing public transportation. It has introduced more regulations forwaste handling. The amount of solid waste generated in urban areas of Vietnam has increased by more than 200% from 2003 to 2008. Industrial solid waste accounted for 181% of that increase. One of the government's efforts includes attempting to promote campaigns that encourage locals to sorthousehold waste, sincewaste sorting is still not practised by most of Vietnamese society.[386]
^Some cities were established or expanded after the2019 census was conducted, including Thủ Đức, Thuận An, Huế, Dĩ An, Vinh, Tân Uyên, Thanh Hóa, Thủy Nguyên, Bắc Giang, Hạ Long.
^Excluding converted population (including temporary residents).
The French language, a legacy of colonial rule, is spoken by many educated Vietnamese as a second language, especially among those educated in the formerSouth Vietnam, where it was a principal language in administration, education and commerce.[389] Vietnam remains a full member of theInternational Organisation of the Francophonie (La Francophonie) and education has revived some interest in the language.[390]Russian, and to a lesser extent German,Czech andPolish are known among some northern Vietnamese whose families had ties with the Eastern Bloc during the Cold War.[391] With improved relations with Western countries and recent reforms in Vietnamese administration, English has been increasingly used as a second language and the study of English is now obligatory in most schools either alongside or in place of French.[392][393] The popularity of Japanese,Korean, andMandarin Chinese have also grown as the country's ties with other East Asian nations have strengthened.[394][395][396] Third-graders can choose one of seven languages (English, Russian, French, Chinese, Japanese, Korean, German) as their first foreign language.[397][398][399] In Vietnam'shigh school graduation examinations, students can take their foreign language exam in one of the above-mentioned languages.[400]
Under Article 70 of the 1992 Constitution of Vietnam, all citizens enjoyfreedom of belief and religion.[401] All religions are equal before the law and eachplace of worship is protected under Vietnamese state law. Religious beliefs cannot be misused to undermine state law and policies.[401][402] According to a 2007 survey 81% of Vietnamese peopledid not believe in a god.[403] Based on government findings in 2009, the number of religious people increased by 932,000.[404] The official statistics, presented by the Vietnamese government to theUnited Nations special rapporteur in 2014, indicate the overall number of followers of recognised religions is about 24 million of a total population of almost 90 million.[405] According to the General Statistics Office of Vietnam in 2019,Buddhists account for 4.79% of the total population,Catholics 6.1%,Protestants 1.0%,Hoahao Buddhists 1.02%, andCaodaism followers 0.58%.[2] Other religions includesIslam,Bahaʼís andHinduism, representing less than 0.2% of the population.
The majority of Vietnamese do not follow any organised religion, though many of them observe some form ofVietnamese folk religion.Confucianism as a system of social and ethical philosophy still has certain influences in modern Vietnam.Mahāyāna is the dominant branch of Buddhism, whileTheravada is practised mostly by the Khmer minority. About 8 to 9% of the population is Christian—made up of Roman Catholics and Protestants. Catholicism was introduced to Vietnam in the 16th century and was firmly established byJesuits missionaries (mainly Portuguese and Italian) in the 17th centuries from nearbyPortuguese Macau.[80] French missionaries (from theParis Foreign Missions Society) together with Spanish missionaries (from theDominican Order of the neighbouringSpanish East Indies) actively sought converts in the 18th, 19th, and first half of the 20th century.[406][407][408] A significant number of Vietnamese people, especially in the South, are also adherents of two indigenous religions of syncreticCaodaism and quasi-BuddhistHoahaoism.[409] Protestantism was only recently spread by American and Canadian missionaries in the 20th century;[410] the largest Protestant denomination is theEvangelical Church of Vietnam. Around 770,000 of the country's Protestants are members of ethnic minorities,[410] particularly the highlandMontagnards[411] andHmong people. Although it is one of the country's minority religions, Protestantism is thefastest-growing religion in Vietnam, expanding at a rate of 600% in recent decades.[410][412] Several other minority faiths exist in Vietnam, these include: Bani,Sunni andnon-denominational sections of Islam which is practised primarily among the ethnicCham minority.[413] There are also a few Kinh adherents of Islam, other minority adherents of Baha'i, as well asHindus among the Cham's.[414][415]
Vietnam has an extensive state-controlled network of schools, colleges, and universities and a growing number of privately run and partially privatised institutions. General education in Vietnam is divided into five categories:kindergarten,elementary schools,middle schools,high schools, anduniversities. A large number of public schools have been constructed across the country to raise the nationalliteracy rate, which stood at 90% in 2008.[416] Most universities are located in major cities of Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City with the country's education system continuously undergoing a series of reforms by the government.Basic education in the country is relatively free for the poor although some families may still have trouble paying tuition fees for their children without some form of public or private assistance.[417] Regardless, Vietnam's school enrolment is among the highest in the world.[418][419] The number of colleges and universities increased dramatically in the 2000s from 178 in 2000 to 299 in 2005. In higher education, the government provides subsidised loans for students through the national bank, although there are deep concerns about access to the loans as well the burden on students to repay them.[420][421] Since 1995, enrolment in higher education has grown tenfold to over 2.2 million with 84,000 lecturers and 419 institutions of higher education.[422] A number of foreign universities operate private campuses in Vietnam, includingHarvard University (United States) and theRoyal Melbourne Institute of Technology (Australia). The government's strong commitment to education has fostered significant growth but still need to be sustained to retain academics. In 2018, a decree on university autonomy allowing them to operate independently without ministerial control is in its final stages of approval. The government will continue investing in education especially for the poor to have access to basic education.[423]
Development of life expectancy in Vietnam since 1950
By 2015, 97% of the population had access to improved water sources.[424] In 2016, Vietnam's nationallife expectancy stood at 80.9 years for women and 71.5 for men, and theinfant mortality rate was 17 per 1,000 live births.[425] Since the partition, North Vietnam has established a public health system that has reached down to thehamlet level.[426] After the national reunification in 1975, a nationwide health service was established.[175] In the late 1980s, the quality of healthcare declined to some degree as a result of budgetary constraints, a shift of responsibility to the provinces and the introduction of charges.[301] Inadequate funding has also contributed to a shortage ofnurses,midwives and hospital beds; in 2000, Vietnam had only 24.7 hospital beds per 10,000 people before declining to 23.7 in 2005 as stated in the annual report ofVietnamese Health Ministry.[427] The controversial use of herbicides as a chemical weapon by theUS military during the war left tangible, long-termimpacts upon the Vietnamese people that persist in the country today.[428][429] For instance, it led to three million Vietnamese people suffering health problems, one million birth defects caused directly by exposure to the chemical and 24% of Vietnam's land being defoliated.[430]
Since the early 2000s, Vietnam has made significant progress in combatingmalaria. The malaria mortality rate fell to about five per cent of its 1990s equivalent by 2005 after the country introduced improved antimalarial drugs and treatment.[431]Tuberculosis (TB) cases, however, are on the rise. TB has become the second most infectious disease in the country afterrespiratory-related illness.[432] With an intensified vaccination programme, better hygiene and foreign assistance, Vietnam hopes to reduce sharply the number of TB cases and new TB infections.[433] In 2004, government subsidies covering about 15% of health care expenses.[434] That year, the United States announced Vietnam would be one of 15 states to receive funding as part of its global AIDS relief plan.[435] By the following year, Vietnam had diagnosed 101,291human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) cases, of which 16,528 progressed toacquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS); 9,554 have died.[436] The actual number of HIV-positive individuals is estimated to be much higher. On average between 40 and 50 new infections are reported daily in the country. In 2007, 0.4% of the population was estimated to be infected with HIV and the figure has remained stable since 2005.[437] More global aid is being delivered throughThe Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria to fight the spread of the disease in the country.[433] In September 2018, the Hanoi People's Committee urged the citizens of the country to stop eatingdog andcat meat as it can cause diseases likerabies andleptospirosis. More than 1,000 stores in the capital city of Hanoi were found to be selling both meats. The decision prompted positive comments among Vietnamese onsocial media, though some noted that the consumption of dog meat will remain an ingrained habit among many people.[438]
Vietnamese culture is considered part ofSinosphere. Vietnam's culture has developed over the centuries from indigenous ancientĐông Sơn culture with wet rice cultivation as its economic base.[44][47] Some elements of the nation's culture have Chinese origins, drawing on elements ofConfucianism,Mahāyāna Buddhism, andTaoism in its traditional political system and philosophy.[439][440] Vietnamese society is structured aroundlàng (ancestral villages);[441] all Vietnamese mark acommon ancestral anniversary on the tenth day of the thirdlunar month.[442][443] The influence ofChinese culture such as theCantonese,Hakka,Hokkien, andHainanese cultures is more evident in the north where Buddhism is strongly entwined with popular culture.[444] Despite this, there areChinatowns in the south, such as inChợ Lớn, where many Chinese haveintermarried with Kinh and are indistinguishable among them.[445] In the central and southern parts of Vietnam, traces of Champa andKhmer culture are evidenced through the remains of ruins, artefacts as well within their population as the successor of the ancientSa Huỳnh culture.[446][447] In recent centuries, Western cultures have become popular among recent generations of Vietnamese.[440]
Vietnamese traditional whiteschool uniform for girls in the country, theáo dài with the addition ofnón lá, a conical hat
The traditional focuses of Vietnamese culture are based on humanity (nhân nghĩa) and harmony (hòa) in which family and community values are highly regarded.[444] Vietnam reveres a number of key cultural symbols,[448] such as theVietnamese dragon which is derived fromcrocodile andsnake imagery; Vietnam's national father,Lạc Long Quân is depicted as a holy dragon.[442][449][450] Thelạc is a holy bird representing Vietnam's national motherÂu Cơ. Other prominent images that are also revered are theturtle,buffalo andhorse.[451] Many Vietnamese also believe in thesupernatural andspiritualism where illness can be brought on by acurse orsorcery or caused by non-observance of a religious ethic. Traditional medical practitioners,amulets and other forms of spiritual protection and religious practices may be employed to treat the ill person.[452] In the modern era, the cultural life of Vietnam has been deeply influenced by government-controlled media and cultural programmes.[440] For many decades, foreign cultural influences, especially those of Western origin, were shunned. But since the recent reformation, Vietnam has seen a greater exposure to neighbouring Southeast Asian, East Asian as well to Western culture and media.[453]
The main Vietnamese formal dress, theáo dài is worn for special occasions such as weddings and religious festivals. Whiteáo dài is the required uniform for girls in many high schools across the country. Other examples of traditional Vietnamese clothing include: theáo tứ thân, a four-piece woman's dress; theáo ngũ, a form of thethân in five-piece form, mostly worn in the north of the country; theyếm, a woman's undergarment; theáo bà ba, rural working "pyjamas" for men and women; theáo gấm, a formal brocade tunic for government receptions; and theáo the, a variant of theáo gấm worn by grooms at weddings.[454][455] Traditional headwear includes the standard conicalnón lá, the "lampshade-like"nón quai thao, and the traditional turban,khăn vấn.[455][456] In tourism, a number of popular cultural tourist destinations include the formerImperial City of Huế, theWorld Heritage Sites ofPhong Nha – Kẻ Bàng National Park,Hội An andMỹ Sơn, coastal regions such as Nha Trang, the caves of Hạ Long Bay and theMarble Mountains.[457]
Vietnamese literature has centuries-deep history and the country has a rich tradition offolk literature based on the typical six–to-eight-verse poetic form (lục bát) calledca dao which usually focuses on village ancestors and heroes.[458] Written literature has been found dating back to the 10th centuryNgô dynasty, with notable ancient authors including:Nguyễn Trãi,Hồ Xuân Hương,Nguyễn Du andNguyễn Đình Chiểu. Some literary genres play an important role in theatrical performance, such ashát nói inca trù.[459] Some poetic unions have also been formed in Vietnam, such as thetao đàn. Vietnamese literature has been influenced by Western styles in recent times, with the first literary transformation movement ofthơ mới emerging in 1932.[460] Vietnamese folk literature is an intermingling of many forms. It is not only an oral tradition, but a mixing of three media: hidden (only retained in the memory of folk authors), fixed (written), and shown (performed). Folk literature usually exists in many versions, passed down orally, and has unknown authors.Myths consist of stories about supernatural beings, heroes, creator gods and reflect the viewpoint of ancient people about human life.[461] They consist of creation stories, stories about their origins (Lạc Long Quân andÂu Cơ),culture heroes (Sơn Tinh andThủy Tinh) which are referred to as a mountain and water spirit respectively and many other folklore tales.[445][462]
Traditional Vietnamese music varies between the country's northern and southern regions.[463] Northern classical music is Vietnam's oldest musical form and is traditionally more formal. The origins of Vietnamese classical opera (tuồng) can be traced to the Mongol invasions in the 13th century when the Vietnamese captured aChinese opera troupe.[464] Throughout its history, Vietnam has been the most heavily impacted by theChinese musical tradition along with those of Japan,Korea andMongolia.[463]Nhã nhạc is the most popular form of imperial court music,Chèo is a form of generally satiricalmusical theatre, whileXẩm orhát xẩm (xẩm singing) is a type of Vietnamesefolk music.Quan họ (alternate singing) is popular in the formerHà Bắc province (which is now divided intoBắc Ninh andBắc Giang provinces) and across Vietnam. Another form of music calledHát chầu văn orhát văn is used to invoke spirits during ceremonies.Nhạc dân tộc cải biên is a modern form of Vietnamesefolk music which arose in the 1950s, whileca trù (also known ashát ả đào) is a popular folk music.Hò can be thought of as the southern style ofQuan họ. There is a range of traditional instruments, including theđàn bầu (a monochordzither), theđàn gáo (a two-stringedfiddle with coconut body), and theđàn nguyệt (a two-stringed fretted moonlute). In recent times, there have been some efforts at mixing Vietnamese traditional music—especially folk music—with modern music to revive and promote national music in the modern context and educate the younger generations about Vietnam's traditional musical instruments and singing styles.[465]Bolero music has gained popularity in the country since the 1930s, albeit with a different style—a combination of traditional Vietnamese music with Western elements.[466] In the 21st century, the modern Vietnamesepop music industry known asV-pop incorporates elements of many popular genres worldwide, such aselectronic,dance andR&B.[467][468]
Vietnam's media sector is regulated by the government under the 2004 Law on Publication.[469] It is generally perceived that the country's media sector is controlled by the government and follows the official communist party line, though some newspapers are relatively outspoken.[470][471] TheVoice of Vietnam (VOV) is the official state-run national radio broadcasting service, broadcasting internationally via shortwave using rented transmitters in other countries and providing broadcasts from its website, whileVietnam Television (VTV) is the national television broadcasting company. Since 1997, Vietnam has regulated publicinternet access extensively using both legal and technical means. The resulting lockdown is widely referred to as the "Bamboo Firewall".[472] The collaborative projectOpenNet Initiative classifies Vietnam's level of online political censorship to be "pervasive",[473] whileReporters Without Borders (RWB) considers Vietnam to be one of 15 global "internet enemies".[474] Though the government of Vietnam maintains that such censorship is necessary to safeguard the country against obscene or sexually explicit content, many political and religious websites that are deemed to be undermining state authority are also blocked.[475]
Traditionally, Vietnamese cuisine is based around five fundamental taste "elements" (Vietnamese:ngũ vị): spicy (metal), sour (wood), salty (water), bitter (fire) and sweet (earth).[476] Common ingredients includefish sauce,shrimp paste,soy sauce, rice, fresh herbs, fruits and vegetables. Vietnamese recipes use:lemongrass,ginger,mint,Vietnamese mint,long coriander,Saigon cinnamon,bird's eye chilli,lime andbasil leaves.[477] Traditional Vietnamese cooking is known for its fresh ingredients, minimal use of oil and reliance on herbs and vegetables; it is considered one of the healthiest cuisines worldwide.[478] The use of meats such as pork, beef and chicken was relatively limited in the past. Instead freshwater fish,crustaceans (particularlycrabs), andmolluscs became widely used. Fish sauce, soy sauce, prawn sauce and limes are among the main flavouring ingredients. Vietnam has a strongstreet food culture, with 40 popular dishes commonly found throughout the country.[479] Many notable Vietnamese dishes such asgỏi cuốn (salad roll),bánh cuốn (rice noodle roll),bún riêu (rice vermicelli soup) andphở noodles originated in the north and were introduced to central and southern Vietnam by northern migrants.[480][481] Local foods in the north are often less spicy than southern dishes, as the colder northern climate limits the production and availability of spices.[482]Black pepper is frequently used in place ofchillis to produce spicy flavours. Vietnamese drinks in the south also are usually served cold withice cubes, especially during the annual hot seasons; in contrast, in the north hot drinks are more preferable in a colder climate. Some examples of basic Vietnamese drinks includecà phê đá (Vietnamese iced coffee),cà phê trứng (egg coffee),chanh muối (salted pickled lime juice),cơm rượu (glutinous rice wine),nước mía (sugarcane juice) andtrà sen (Vietnamese lotus tea).[483]
SpecialTết decoration in the country seen during the holiday
The country has eleven national recognised holidays. These include:New Year's Day on 1 January; Vietnamese New Year (Tết Nguyên Đán) from the last day of the last lunar month to fifth day of the firstlunar month;Hùng Kings' Festival on the 10th day of the third lunar month;Reunification Day on 30 April;International Workers' Day on 1 May; andNational Day on 2 September.[484][485][486] DuringTết, many Vietnamese from the major cities will return to their villages for family reunions and to pray for dead ancestors.[487][488] Older people will usually give the young alì xì (red envelope) while special holiday food, such asbánh chưng (rice cake) in a square shape together with variety ofdried fruits, are presented in the house for visitors.[489] Many other festivals are celebrated throughout the seasons, including theTết Nguyên Tiêu,Tết Trung Thu and various temple and nature festivals.[490] In the highlands,Elephant Race Festivals are held annually during the spring; riders will ride their elephants for about 1.6 km (0.99 mi) and the winning elephant will be given sugarcane.[491]Traditional Vietnamese weddings remain widely popular.[492]
^The census data was also cited in the United States Department of State's 2022 Report on International Religious Freedom regarding Vietnam. However, the report indicated that this figure did not include the potentially significant number of individuals who engage in Buddhist practices to a certain extent without being formally participated in a Buddhist religious group.[3] An earlier United States Department of State report from 2019 revealed that 26.4 per cent of the population identified with an organised religion. This breakdown included 14.9 per cent identifying as Buddhist, 7.4 per cent as Roman Catholic, 1.5 per cent as Hòa Hảo Buddhist, 1.2 per cent as Cao Đài, and 1.1 per cent as Protestant. The remainder did not identify with any religious group or observed beliefs such as animism or the reverence of ancestors, tutelary and protective saints, national heroes, or esteemed local figures.[4]
^The area of Vietnam mentioned here is based on the land area statistics provided by the Vietnamese government. However, alternative figures exist. According to the CIA World Factbook, Vietnam's total area is 331,210 square kilometres,[8] while the BBC cites a slightly different measurement of 331,699 square kilometres.[9]
^Neither the American government nor Ngô Đình Diệm's State of Vietnam signed anything at the 1954 Geneva Conference. The non-communist Vietnamese delegation objected strenuously to any division of Vietnam; however, the French accepted the Việt Minh proposal[119] that Vietnam be united by elections under the supervision of "local commissions".[120] The United States, with the support ofSouth Vietnam and the United Kingdom, countered with the "American Plan",[121] which provided forUnited Nations-supervised unification elections. The plan, however, was rejected bySoviet and other communist delegations.[122]
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^Nguyen, N., & Nguyen, Q. (2024). The Religious Aspect of Confucianism During The Ly-Tran Dynasties, Vietnam.Griot: Revista de Filosofia,24 (2), 234–246.
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