"Foodstuffs" redirects here. For the New Zealand grocery company, seeFoodstuffs (company).
Display of various foods
Food is any substance consumed by anorganism fornutritional support. Food is usually of plant, animal, orfungal origin and contains essential nutrients such ascarbohydrates,fats,proteins,vitamins, orminerals. The substance isingested by an organism and assimilated by the organism'scells to provide energy, maintain life, or stimulate growth. Different species of animals have differentfeeding behaviours that satisfy the needs of theirmetabolisms and have evolved to fill a specificecological niche within specific geographical contexts.
Food is any substance consumed to providenutritional support and energy to anorganism.[2][3] It can be raw, processed, or formulated and is consumed orally by animals for growth, health, or pleasure. Food is mainly composed of water,lipids,proteins, andcarbohydrates. Minerals (e.g., salts) and organic substances (e.g.,vitamins) can also be found in food.[4] Plants,algae, and some microorganisms usephotosynthesis to make some of their own nutrients.[5] Water is found in many foods and has been defined as food by itself.[6] Water andfiber have low energy densities, orcalories, while fat is the most energy-dense component.[3] Some inorganic (non-food) elements are also essential for plant and animal functioning.[7]
Human food can be classified in various ways, either by related content or by how it is processed.[8] The number and composition offood groups can vary. Most systems include four basic groups that describe their origin and relative nutritional function: Vegetables and Fruit, Cereals and Bread, Dairy, and Meat.[9] Studies that look into diet quality group food into whole grains/cereals, refined grains/cereals, vegetables, fruits, nuts, legumes, eggs, dairy products, fish, red meat, processed meat, and sugar-sweetened beverages.[10][11][12] TheFood and Agriculture Organization andWorld Health Organization use a system with nineteen food classifications: cereals, roots, pulses and nuts, milk, eggs, fish and shellfish, meat, insects, vegetables, fruits, fats and oils, sweets and sugars, spices and condiments, beverages, foods for nutritional uses, food additives, composite dishes and savory snacks.[13]
Food sources
A typical aquatic food web
In a given ecosystem, food forms aweb of interlockingchains withprimary producers at the bottom andapex predators at the top.[14] Other aspects of the web includedetrovores (that eatdetritis) anddecomposers (that break down dead organisms).[14] Primary producers include algae, plants, bacteria and protists that acquire their energy from sunlight.[15] Primary consumers are theherbivores that consume the plants, and secondary consumers are thecarnivores that consume those herbivores. Some organisms, including most mammals and birds, diet consists of both animals and plants, and they are considered omnivores.[16] The chain ends with the apex predators, the animals that have no known predators in its ecosystem.[17] Humans are considered apex predators.[18]
Humans are omnivores, finding sustenance in vegetables, fruits, cooked meat, milk, eggs, mushrooms and seaweed.[16] Cereal grain is astaple food that provides more food energy worldwide than any other type of crop.[19]Corn (maize), wheat, and rice account for 87% of all grain production worldwide.[20][21][22] Just over half of the world's crops are used to feed humans (55 percent), with 36 percent grown as animal feed and 9 percent forbiofuels.[23] Fungi and bacteria are also used in the preparation offermented foods likebread,wine,cheese andyogurt.[24]
Photosynthesis
Duringphotosynthesis, energy from the sun is absorbed and used to transform water and carbon dioxide in the air or soil into oxygen and glucose. The oxygen is then released, and the glucose stored as an energy reserve.[25] Photosynthetic plants, algae and certain bacteria often represent the lowest point of the food chains,[26][27] making photosynthesis the primary source of energy and food for nearly all life on earth.[28]
Plants also absorb important nutrients and minerals from the air, natural waters, and soil.[29] Carbon, oxygen and hydrogen are absorbed from the air or water and are the basic nutrients needed for plant survival.[30] The three main nutrients absorbed from the soil for plant growth are nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, with other important nutrients including calcium, sulfur, magnesium, iron boron, chlorine, manganese, zinc, copper molybdenum and nickel.[30]
Microorganisms
Bacteria and other microorganisms also form the lower rungs of the food chain. They obtain their energy from photosynthesis or by breaking down dead organisms, waste or chemical compounds. Some form symbiotic relationships with other organisms to obtain their nutrients.[31] Bacteria provide a source of food for protozoa,[32] who in turn provide a source of food for other organisms such as small invertebrates.[33] Other organisms that feed on bacteria include nematodes, fan worms, shellfish and a species of snail.
In the marine environment, plankton (which includesbacteria,archaea,algae,protozoa and microscopicfungi)[34] provide a crucial source of food to many small and large aquatic organisms.
Without bacteria, life would scarcely exist because bacteria convert atmospheric nitrogen into nutritiousammonia. Ammonia is the precursor to proteins, nucleic acids, and most vitamins. Since the advent of industrial process for nitrogen fixation, theHaber-Bosch Process, the majority of ammonia in the world is human-made.[35]
Plants
Foods from plant sources
Plants as a food source are divided into seeds, fruits, vegetables, legumes, grains and nuts.[36] Where plants fall within these categories can vary, with botanically described fruits such as the tomato, squash, pepper and eggplant or seeds like peas commonly considered vegetables.[37] Food is a fruit if the part eaten is derived from thereproductive tissue, so seeds, nuts and grains are technically fruit.[38][39] From a culinary perspective, fruits are generally considered the remains of botanically described fruits after grains, nuts, seeds and fruits used as vegetables are removed.[40] Grains can be defined as seeds that humans eat or harvest, with cereal grains (oats, wheat, rice, corn, barley, rye, sorghum and millet) belonging to thePoaceae (grass) family[41] and pulses coming from theFabaceae (legume) family.[42]Whole grains are foods that contain all the elements of the original seed (bran, germ, andendosperm).[43] Nuts are dry fruits, distinguishable by their woody shell.[40]
Fleshy fruits (distinguishable from dry fruits like grain, seeds and nuts) can be further classified asstone fruits (cherries and peaches),pome fruits (apples, pears),berries (blackberry, strawberry),citrus (oranges, lemon),melons (watermelon, cantaloupe), Mediterranean fruits (grapes, fig),tropical fruits (banana, pineapple).[40] Vegetables refer to any other part of the plant that can be eaten, including roots, stems, leaves, flowers, bark or the entire plant itself.[44] These includeroot vegetables (potatoes and carrots), bulbs (onion family), flowers (cauliflower and broccoli),leaf vegetables (spinach and lettuce) andstem vegetables (celery andasparagus).[45][44]
The carbohydrate, protein and lipid content of plants is highly variable. Carbohydrates are mainly in the form of starch, fructose, glucose and other sugars.[36] Most vitamins are found from plant sources, with the exception ofvitamin D andvitamin B12.Minerals can also be plentiful or not. Fruit can consist of up to 90% water, contain high levels ofsimple sugars that contribute to their sweet taste, and have a highvitamin C content.[36][40] Compared to fleshy fruit (excepting Bananas) vegetables are high in starch,[46]potassium, dietary fiber,folate and vitamins and low in fat and calories.[47] Grains are more starch based[36] and nuts have a high protein, fiber, vitamin E and B content.[40] Seeds are a good source of food for animals because they are abundant and contain fiber and healthful fats, such asomega-3 fats.[48][49] Complicated chemical interactions can enhance or depress bioavailability of certain nutrients.Phytates can prevent the release of some sugars and vitamins.[36]
Animals that only eat plants are calledherbivores, with those that mostly just eat fruits known asfrugivores,[50] leaves, while shoot eaters arefolivores (pandas) and wood eaters termedxylophages (termites).[51]Frugivores include a diverse range of species from annelids to elephants, chimpanzees and many birds.[52][53][54] About 182 fish consume seeds or fruit.[55] Animals (domesticated and wild) use as many types of grasses that have adapted to different locations as their main source of nutrients.[56]
Humans eat thousands of plant species; there may be as many as 75,000 edible species ofangiosperms, of which perhaps 7,000 are often eaten.[57] Plants can be processed into breads, pasta, cereals, juices and jams or raw ingredients such as sugar, herbs, spices and oils can be extracted.[36]Oilseeds are pressed to produce rich oils – sunflower,flaxseed,rapeseed (includingcanola oil) andsesame.[58]
Many plants and animals havecoevolved in such a way that the fruit is a good source of nutrition for the animal, who then excretes the seeds some distance away, allowing greater dispersal.[59] Evenseed predation can be mutually beneficial, as some seeds can survive the digestion process.[60][61] Insects are major eaters of seeds,[48] with ants being the only real seed dispersers.[62] Birds, although being major dispersers,[63] only rarely eat seeds as a source of food and can be identified by their thick beak that is used to crack open the seed coat.[64] Mammals eat a more diverse range of seeds, as they are able to crush harder and larger seeds with their teeth.[65]
Animals
Various raw meats
Animals are used as food either directly or indirectly. This includes meat, eggs, shellfish and dairy products like milk and cheese.[66] They are an important source of protein and are considered complete proteins for human consumption as they contain all the essential amino acids that the human body needs.[67] One 4-ounce (110 g) steak, chicken breast or pork chop contains about 30 grams of protein. One large egg has 7 grams of protein. A 4-ounce (110 g) serving of cheese has about 15 grams of protein. And 1 cup (~240 mL) of milk has about 8 grams of protein.[67] Other nutrients found in animal products include calories, fat, essential vitamins (including B12) and minerals (including zinc, iron, calcium, magnesium).[67]
Food products produced by animals include milk produced bymammary glands, which in many cultures is drunk or processed intodairy products (cheese, butter, etc.).Eggs laid by birds and other animals are eaten andbees producehoney, a reducednectar from flowers that is used as a popular sweetener in many cultures. Some culturesconsume blood, such as inblood sausage, as a thickener for sauces, or in acured,salted form for times of food scarcity, and others use blood in stews such asjugged hare.[68]
Animals, specifically humans, typically have five different types of tastes:sweet,sour,salty,bitter, andumami. The differing tastes are important for distinguishing between foods that are nutritionally beneficial and those which may contain harmful toxins.[69] As animals haveevolved, the tastes that provide the most energy are the most pleasant to eat while others are not enjoyable,[70] although humans in particular can acquire a preference for some substances which are initially unenjoyable.[69] Water, while important for survival, has no taste.[71]
Sweetness is almost always caused by a type of simple sugar such asglucose orfructose, ordisaccharides such assucrose, a molecule combining glucose and fructose.[72] Sourness is caused byacids, such as vinegar in alcoholic beverages. Sour foods include citrus, specifically lemons andlimes. Sour is evolutionarily significant as it can signal a food that may have gonerancid due to bacteria.[73] Saltiness is the taste ofalkali metalions such assodium and potassium. It is found in almost every food in low to moderate proportions to enhance flavor. Bitter taste is a sensation considered unpleasant characterised by having a sharp, pungent taste. Unsweetened dark chocolate,caffeine, lemon rind, and some types of fruit are known to be bitter. Umami, commonly described as savory, is a marker of proteins and characteristic of broths and cooked meats.[74] Foods that have a strong umami flavor include cheese, meat and mushrooms.[75]
Catfish have millions of taste buds covering their entire body.
While most animals taste buds are located in their mouth, some insects taste receptors are located on their legs and some fish have taste buds along their entire body.[76][77] Dogs, cats and birds have relatively few taste buds (chickens have about 30),[78] adult humans have between 2000 and 4000,[79] whilecatfish can have more than a million.[77] Herbivores generally have more than carnivores as they need to tell which plants may be poisonous.[78] Not allmammals share the same tastes: somerodents can tastestarch, cats cannot taste sweetness, and severalcarnivores (includinghyenas, dolphins, and sea lions) have lost the ability to sense up to four of the five taste modalities found in humans.[80]
Food is broken into nutrient components through digestive process.[81] Proper digestion consists of mechanical processes (chewing,peristalsis) and chemical processes (digestive enzymes andmicroorganisms).[82][83] The digestive systems of herbivores and carnivores are very different as plant matter is harder to digest. Carnivores mouths are designed for tearing and biting compared to the grinding action found in herbivores.[84] Herbivores however have comparatively longer digestive tracts and larger stomachs to aid in digesting the cellulose in plants.[85][86]
According to theWorld Health Organization (WHO), about 600 million people worldwide get sick and 420,000 die each year from eating contaminated food.[87][88]Diarrhea is the most common illness caused by consuming contaminated food, with about 550 million cases and 230,000 deaths from diarrhea each year. Children under five years of age account for 40% of the burden of foodborne illness, with 125,000 deaths each year.[88][89]
A 2003World Health Organization (WHO) report concluded that about 30% of reportedfood poisoning outbreaks in the WHO European Region occur in private homes.[90] According to the WHO andCDC, in the US alone, annually, there are 76 million cases of foodborne illness leading to 325,000 hospitalizations and 5,000 deaths.[91]
From 2011 to 2016, on average, there were 668,673 cases of foodborne illness and 21 deaths each year.[92][93][94][95] In addition, during this period, 1,007 food poisoning outbreaks with 30,395 cases of food poisoning were reported.[88]
^Nestle, Marion (2013) [2002].Food Politics: How the Food Industry Influences Nutrition and Health. University of California Press. pp. 36–37.ISBN978-0-520-27596-6.
^abSociety, National Geographic (21 January 2011)."omnivore".National Geographic Society.Archived from the original on 15 December 2021. Retrieved15 December 2021.
^States "having an acid taste like lemon or vinegar: she sampled the wine and found it was sour. (of food, esp. milk) spoiled because of fermentation." New Oxford American Dictionary
^"How does our sense of taste work?".InformedHealth.org. Institute for Quality and Efficiency in Health Care. 17 August 2016.Archived from the original on 10 January 2024 – via NCBI.
^Patricia, Justin J.; Dhamoon, Amit S. (2022)."Physiology, Digestion".StatPearls. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing.PMID31334962. Retrieved6 January 2023.
Collingham, E. M. (2011).The Taste of War: World War Two and the Battle for Food
Katz, Solomon (2003).The Encyclopedia of Food and Culture, Scribner
Mobbs, Michael (2012).Sustainable Food Sydney: NewSouth Publishing,ISBN978-1-920705-54-1
Nestle, Marion (2007).Food Politics: How the Food Industry Influences Nutrition and Health, University Presses of California, revised and expanded edition,ISBN0-520-25403-1
The Future of Food (2015). A panel discussion at the 2015Digital Life Design (DLD) Annual Conference. "How can we grow and enjoy food, closer to home, further into the future?MIT Media Lab's Kevin Slavin hosts a conversation with food artist, educator, and entrepreneur Emilie Baltz, professor Caleb Harper fromMIT Media Lab's CityFarm project, the Barbarian Group's Benjamin Palmer, and Andras Forgacs, the co-founder and CEO ofModern Meadow, who is growing 'victimless' meat in a lab. The discussion addresses issues of sustainableurban farming, ecosystems, technology, food supply chains and their broad environmental and humanitarian implications, and how these changes in food production may change what people may find delicious ... and the other way around." Posted on the official YouTube Channel ofDLD
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