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Kingdom of Peru Reino del Perú | |
|---|---|
| 1542–1824 | |
| Motto: Plus Ultra(Latin) "Further Beyond" | |
| Anthem: Marcha Real "Royal March" (1775–1821) | |
Flags ofSpain[b] (left) and theCross of Burgundy[c] (right).svg)  | |
![Location of the Viceroyalty of Peru: initial de jure territory 1542–1718 (light green) and final territory 1776–1798[d] (dark green)](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aMap_of_the_Viceroyalty_of_Peru_(%252Bclaimed_Patagonian_and_Amazonic_territories).svg) Location of the Viceroyalty of Peru: initialde jure territory 1542–1718 (light green) and final territory 1776–1798[d] (dark green) | |
| Status | Viceroyalty of theSpanish Empire |
| Capital | Lima (1535–1821) Cusco (1821–1824) |
| Common languages | Spanish (official, administrative) Quechua Kichwa Aymara Puquina Mapudungun |
| Religion | Catholic Church |
| King | |
• 1544–46 (first) | Charles I |
• 1816–24 (last) | Ferdinand VII |
| Viceroy | |
• 1544–46 (first) | Blasco Núñez Vela |
• 1821–24 (last) | José de la Serna |
| Historical era | Spanish Empire |
• Established | 20 November 1542 |
| May 1572 | |
| 27 May 1717 | |
| 1 August 1776 | |
| 28 July 1821 | |
| 9 December 1824 | |
• Dissolved | 30 December 1824 |
| 23 January 1826 | |
| Area | |
• Total | 1,340,000 km2 (520,000 sq mi) |
| Currency | Spanish dollar |
TheViceroyalty of Peru (Spanish:Virreinato del Perú), officially known as theKingdom of Peru (Spanish:Reino del Perú), was aSpanish imperial provincial administrative district, created in 1542, that originally contained modern-dayPeru and most of theSpanish Empire in South America, governed from the capital ofLima. Along with theViceroyalty of New Spain, Peru was one of two Spanishviceroyalties in the Americas from the sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries.
The Spanish did not resist thePortuguese expansion of Brazil across the meridian established by theTreaty of Tordesillas. The treaty was rendered meaningless between 1580 and 1640 whileSpain controlled Portugal. The creation during the 18th century of the Viceroyalties ofNew Granada andRío de la Plata (at the expense of Peru's territory) reduced the importance of Lima and shifted the lucrativeAndean trade toBuenos Aires, while the fall of the mining and textile production accelerated the progressive decay of the Viceroyalty of Peru.
Eventually, the viceroyalty dissolved, as with much of the Spanish Empire, when challenged by national independence movements at the beginning of the nineteenth century. These movements led to the formation of the modern-day country of Peru, as well asChile,Colombia,Panama,Ecuador,Bolivia,Paraguay,Uruguay, andArgentina, the territories that at one point or another had constituted the Viceroyalty of Peru.
After theSpanish conquest of Peru,Charles V granted the conquistadors withadelantados, giving them the right to become governors and justices of the region they conquered. Prior to the establishment of the Viceroyalty of Peru, several majorgovernorates formed from these grants, including theGovernorate of New Castile (1529),Governorate of New Toledo (1534),Governorate of New Andalusia (1534), andProvince of Tierra Firme (1539).
In 1542, the Spanish organized the existing governorates into the Viceroyalty of New Castile, which shortly afterward would be called theViceroyalty of Peru, in order to properly control and govern Spanish South America.
In 1544,Holy Roman EmperorCharles V (King Charles I of Spain) namedBlasco Núñez Vela Peru's first viceroy. From September 2, 1564, to November 26, 1569,Lope García de Castro, a Spanish colonial administrator who constituted the firstAudiencia in Spanish South America, served as the interim viceroy of Peru.
Although established, the viceroyalty was not properly organized until the arrival of ViceroyFrancisco Álvarez de Toledo, who made an extensive tour of inspection of the region. Francisco de Toledo, "one of the great administrators of human times,"[7] established theInquisition in the viceroyalty and promulgated laws that applied to Indians and Spanish alike, breaking the power of theencomenderos and reducing the old system ofmita (the Incan system of mandatory labor tribute). He improved the defensibility of the viceroyalty with fortifications, bridges, andla Armada del Mar del Sur (the Southern Fleet) against pirates. He ended the indigenousNeo-Inca State inVilcabamba, executing the IncaTúpac Amaru, and promoted economic development from the commercial monopoly and mineral extraction, mainly from silver mines inPotosí.
TheAmazon Basin and some large adjoining regions had been considered Spanish territory since theTreaty of Tordesillas and explorations such as that byFrancisco de Orellana, but Portugal fell under Spanish control between 1580 and 1640. During this time, Portuguese territories in Brazil were controlled by the Spanish crown, which did object to the spread of Portuguese settlement into parts of the Amazon Basin that the treaty had awarded to Spain. Still,Luis Jerónimo de Cabrera, 4th Count of Chinchón sent out a third expedition to explore theAmazon River, underCristóbal de Acuña; this was part of the return leg of the expedition ofPedro Teixeira.
Some Pacific islands andarchipelagoes were visited by Spanish ships in the sixteenth century, but they made no effort to trade with or colonize them. These includedNew Guinea (byÝñigo Ortiz de Retez in 1545), theSolomon Islands (in 1568), and theMarquesas Islands (in 1595) byÁlvaro de Mendaña de Neira.
The firstJesuit reduction to Christianize the indigenous population was founded in 1609, but some areas occupied by Brazilians asbandeirantes gradually extended their activities through much of the basin and adjoiningMato Grosso in the 17th and 18th centuries. These groups had the advantage of remote geography and river access from the mouth of the Amazon, which was in Portuguese territory. Meanwhile, the Spanish were barred by their laws from enslaving indigenous people, leaving them without a commercial interest deep in the interior of the basin.[note 1]
A famous attack upon a Spanish mission in 1628 resulted in the enslavement of 60,000 indigenous people.[note 2] As time passed, they were used as a self-funding occupation force by the Portuguese authorities in what was effectively a low-level war of territorial conquest.
In 1617, viceroyFrancisco de Borja y Aragón divided the government of Río de la Plata in two, Buenos Aires and Paraguay, both dependencies of the Viceroyalty of Peru. He established theTribunal del Consulado, a court and administrative body for commercial affairs in the viceroyalty.Diego Fernández de Córdoba, Marquis of Guadalcázar, reformed the fiscal system and stopped the interfamily rivalry that was bloodying the domain.
Other viceroys, such asFernando Torres, Fernández de Cabrera, and Fernández Córdoba expanded the royal navy and fortified the ports to resist foreign incursions, such as those led byprivateerThomas Cavendish. Fernández de Cabrera also suppressed an insurrection of theUru andMapuche Indians.[citation needed]
Viceroys had to protect the Pacific coast from French contraband and English and Dutch pirates and privateers. They expanded the naval forces, fortified the ports ofValdivia,Valparaíso,Arica andCallao and constructed city walls in Lima (1686) andTrujillo (1685–1687). Nevertheless, the famous Welsh privateerHenry Morgan tookChagres andcaptured and sacked the city ofPanama in the early part of 1670. Also Peruvian forces repelled the attacks by Edward David (1684 and 1686),Charles Wager and Thomas Colb (1708). ThePeace of Utrecht allowed theBritish to send ships and merchandise to the fair atPortobello.
In this period, revolts were common. Around 1656,Pedro Bohórquez crowned himself Inca (emperor) of theCalchaquí Indians, inciting the indigenous population to revolt. From 1665 until 1668, the rich mineowners José and Gaspar Salcedo revolted against the colonial government. The clergy were opposed to the nomination of prelates from Spain. ViceroyDiego Ladrón de Guevara had to take measures against an uprising of slaves at thehacienda of Huachipa de Lima. There were terrible earthquakes (1655,1687) and epidemics, too.
DuringBaltasar de la Cueva Enríquez's administration, the laws of the Indies were compiled.[8]Diego de Benavides y de la Cueva issued theOrdenanza de Obrajes (Ordenance of Manufactures) in 1664 andPedro Álvarez de Toledo y Leiva introduced thepapel sellado (literally, sealed paper). In 1683Melchor de Navarra y Rocafull reestablished the Lima mint, which had been closed since 1572. ViceroyDiego Ladrón de Guevara increased the production of silver in the mines ofPotosí, and stimulated production in other mines atSan Nicolás,Cajatambo andHuancavelica. He limited the manufacture ofaguardiente fromsugar cane to authorized factories, which he taxed heavily.
The Churches of Los Desamparados (1672), La Buena Muerte and the convent of Mínimos de San Francisco de Paula were finished and opened. The Hospital of Espiritu Santo in Lima andSan Bartolomé hospital were built.
In 1717, theViceroyalty of New Granada was created from the northern territories, theAudiencias ofBogotá,Quito andPanama. This viceroyalty initially lasted only until 1724, but was reestablished permanently in 1740. With the creation of theViceroyalty of the Río de la Plata from southern areas that are nowArgentina,Bolivia,Paraguay andUruguay in 1776, theCharcas andBuenos Airesaudiencias were similarly lost.
The 256-year-oldTreaty of Tordesillas was superseded by the1750 Treaty of Madrid which granted Portugal control of the lands it had occupied in South America in the intervening centuries. This Portuguese occupation led to theGuaraní War of 1756.Amazonas is named after theAmazon River, and was formerly part of the Spanish Viceroyalty of Peru, a region calledSpanish Guyana. It was settled by the Portuguese in the early 18th century and incorporated into thePortuguese empire after theTreaty of Madrid in 1750. It became a state of theBrazilian Republic in 1889.
Several viceroys had scientific, political and economic impact on the Viceroyalty.Manuel de Amat y Juniet organized an expedition toTahiti. ViceroyTeodoro de Croix also decentralized the government through the creation of eightintendencias in the area of theAudiencia of Lima, and two in theCaptaincy General of Chile.Francisco Gil de Taboada reincorporated the region ofPuno into the Viceroyalty of Peru.José de Armendáriz stimulated the production of silver and took steps against fraud, corruption and smuggling. Amat y Juniet established the first Regulation of Commerce and Organization of Customs rules, which led to the building of the customshouse in Callao.[9] Teodoro de Croix collaborated in the creation of theJunta Superior de Comercio and theTribunal de Minería (1786).
An earthquake demolishedLima andCallao, in 1746. Viceroy Amat y Juniet constructed various public works in Lima, including the first bull ring.Manuel de Guirior also improved the medical care at ten hospitals in Lima and established a foundling home.
War between Spain and Britain again broke out (theWar of Jenkins' Ear, 1739–1748). Amat y Juniet constructed the fortress of Real Felipe in Callao in 1774.
Nevertheless, throughout this period, rebellions byNative Peruvians were not entirely suppressed. In the eighteenth century alone, there were fourteen large uprisings, the most important of which were that ofJuan Santos Atahualpa in 1742, and theSierra Uprising ofTúpac Amaru II in 1780. TheComunero Revolt broke out inParaguay from 1721 to 1732). In 1767, theJesuits were expelled from the colony.
ViceroyJosé Fernando de Abascal y Sousa promoted educational reforms, reorganized the army, and stamped out local rebellions. During his administration, theInquisition of Lima was temporarily abolished as a result of the reforms taken by the Cortes in Spain.
When the wars of independence broke out in 1810, Peru was the center of Royalist reaction. Abascal reincorporated the provinces ofCórdoba,Potosí,La Paz,Charcas,Rancagua andQuito into the Viceroyalty of Peru. TheRoyal Army of Peru during 14 years defeated the patriots armies of Argentinians and Chileans, turning Peru into the last royal bastion in South America.
In 1812, a large fire inGuayaquil destroyed approximately half of the city.[citation needed]
Lord Cochrane unsuccessfully attackedGuayaquil andCallao, but on 4 February hecaptured Valdivia, called at the timeThe Key of the South Seas and theGibraltar of the Pacific, due to itshuge fortifications. The viceroyalty managed to defendChiloé Island until 1826.[citation needed]
On September 8, 1820, theExpedición Libertadora of Peru, organized mainly by the Chilean government with the objective of executing previous plans laid out by ArgentinelibertadorJosé de San Martín,[10] landed on the beach atParacas Bay near the city ofPisco, with the land army under the command ofJosé de San Martín and the navy under the command ofThomas Cochrane. After Cochrane's navy defeated the Spanish navy on the Peruvian coasts, the expedition secured the surrender of Callao.[citation needed] After fruitless negotiations with the viceroy, the expedition occupied the Peruvian capital of Lima on July 21, 1821. The independence of Peru was proclaimed on July 28, 1821. ViceroyJosé de la Serna e Hinojosa, still in command of a sizable military force, retired toJauja, and later toCusco.
On July 26, 1822, San Martín andSimón Bolívar met inGuayaquil to define a strategy for the liberation of the rest of Peru. The meeting was secret, and exactly what occurred is not known. However, afterwards San Martín returned to Argentina while Bolívar prepared to launch an offensive against the remaining royalist forces in Peru andUpper Peru (modern-dayBolivia). In September 1823 Bolívar arrived in Lima withAntonio José de Sucre to plan the offensive.
In February 1824 the royalists briefly regained control of Lima. Olañeta's Rebellion started by surprise and the entire royalist army of Upper Peru (today's Bolivia) revolted, led by the royalist commanderPedro Antonio Olañeta againstJosé de la Serna, the liberalviceroy of Peru. This broke the royal army and started a civil war in Upper Peru. Having regrouped inTrujillo, Bolívar in June led his rebel forces South to confront the Spanish underField MarshalJosé de Canterac. The two armies met on the plains ofJunín on August 6, 1824, and the Peruvians were victorious in a battle fought entirely without firearms. The Spanish troops subsequently evacuated Lima for a second time.
As a result of a decree of the Congress ofGran Colombia, Bolívar turned over command of the rebel troops to Sucre on October 7, 1824.
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At this point, royalist control was reduced toCusco in the south-central highlands. The viceroy launched a counter-offensive overAyacucho, and on 9 December 1824. The Battle of Ayacucho (also known as the Battle of La Quinua), took place between royalist Spanish andnationalist (republican) troops at Pampa de La Quinua, a few kilometers away from Ayacucho, near the town ofQuinua.
This battle, led by Bolívar's lieutenantAntonio José de Sucre, sealed the independence of Peru and South America. During this battle, the losing Spanish army sustained 2,000 dead and wounded and lost 3,000 prisoners, with the remainder of the army entirely dispersed. During the battle, Viceroy Serna was wounded and taken prisoner, where he signed the final capitulation whereby the Spaniards agreed to leave Peru. Serna was released soon afterwards and sailed for Europe.
Spain made futile attempts to retain its former territories, such as at theSiege of Callao (1826), but after death of KingFerdinand VII of Spain in 1836, the government of Spain renounced its territorial and sovereignty claims over all of continental America. In 1867, Spain signed a peace treaty with Peru and in 1879 it signed atreaty recognizing Peru's independence.
The town ofLima, founded by Pizarro on January 18, 1535, as the "Ciudad de los Reyes" (City of the Kings/Magi), became the seat of the new viceroyalty. As the seat of a viceroy, who had oversight over all of Spanish South America except for Portuguese-dominated Brazil, Lima grew into a powerful city. During the 16th, 17th and most of the 18th centuries, all of the colonial wealth of South America created by the silver mines passed through Lima on its way to theIsthmus of Panama and from there toSeville, Spain.
The rest of the viceroyalty was administratively dependent upon Lima, in a pattern that persists until today in Peru. By the start of the 18th century, Lima had become a distinguished and aristocratic colonial capital, seat of the 250-year-oldRoyal and Pontifical University of San Marcos and the chief Spanish stronghold in the Americas.
At ground level during the first century, Spanishencomenderos depended on local chieftains (curacas) to gain access to the Indian population's tribute labor, even the most remote settlements, and therefore, manyencomenderos developed reciprocal, if still hierarchical, relationships with thecuracas.[11] By the end of the 16th century the quasi-privateencomienda had been replaced by therepartimiento system (known in Peru by the Quechua term,mita), which was controlled by local crown officials.
Politically the viceroyalty was further divided intoaudiencias, which were primarily superior tribunals, but which also had administrative and legislative functions. Each of these was responsible to the Viceroy of Peru in administrative matters (though not in judicial ones). Audiencias further incorporated the older, smaller divisions known as "governorships" (gobernaciones, roughlyprovinces) headed by a governor.(See,Adelantado.) Provinces which were under military threat were grouped intocaptaincies general, such as theCaptaincy General of Chile (established in 1541 and established as a Bourbon captaincy general in 1789), and which were joint military and political commands with a certain level of autonomy. The viceroy was captain-general of the provinces which remained directly under his command.
At the local level there were hundreds of districts, in both Indian and Spanish areas, which were headed by either acorregidor (also known as analcalde mayor) or acabildo (town council), both of which had judicial and administrative powers. In the late 18th century the Bourbon dynasty began phasing out thecorregidores and introducedintendants, whose broad fiscal powers cut into the authority of the viceroys, governors andcabildos. (SeeBourbon Reforms.)
With dates of creation:
Later Audiencias
*Later part of theViceroyalty of New Granada
†Later part of theViceroyalty of the Río de la Plata
1.Chile (1789)
Listed under year of creation:[12][13]
1784
3.Trujillo, 4.Tarma, 5.Huancavelica, 6.Cuzco, 7.Arequipa, (10.Chiloé, abolished in 1789)
1786
8.Santiago, 9.Concepción
The economy of the viceroyalty of Peru largely depended on the export ofsilver.[15] The huge amounts of silver exported from the viceroyalty of Peru and Mexico deeply affected Europe, where some scholars believe it caused the so-calledprice revolution.[16] Silver mining was carried out using contract and free wage labourers,[17] as well as themita system of unfree labour,[16] a system inherited frompre-Hispanic times. Silver production peaked in 1610.[16]
Once the Viceroyalty of Peru was established,gold andsilver from the Andes enriched the conquerors, and the viceroyalty became the principal source of Spanish wealth and power in South America. The first coins minted for Peru (and indeed for South America) appeared between 1568 and 1570. ViceroyManuel de Oms y de Santa Pau sent back an enormous sum of money (1,600,000 pesos) to the king to cover some of the costs of theWar of the Spanish Succession. This was possible in part because of the discovery of the mines inCaraboya.[citation needed]
While most of the silver from the viceroyalty ended up in Europe some circulated within South America. Indeed, theReal Situado was an annual payment of silver from the viceroyalty to finance the permanent Spanish army in Chile that which fought a prolonged conflict known asArauco War.[18] The Spanish in turn traded part of this silver withMapuches giving origin to a tradition ofMapuche silverwork.[19] Another issue that burdened the finances of the viceroyalty was the maintenance of theValdivian Fort System built in response to theDutch expedition to Valdivia in 1643.[20]
Luis Jerónimo Fernández de Cabrera prohibited direct trade between Peru andNew Spain (Mexico) and the persecution of Portuguese Jews, the principal traders inLima.[citation needed]
Beginning in 1633 the Spanish crown allowed for thepurchase of high-ranking offices, which led to an increase of power of the local elites and a diminishing efficiency in administration given thatlocal officials were less skilled compared with those from Spain appointed by the crown. This was also a source of increased corruption in the viceroyalty.[21]
A census taken by the last Quipucamayoc indicated that there were 12 million inhabitants of Inca Peru; 45 years later, under viceroy Toledo, the census figures amounted to only 1,100,000 Indians. While the attrition was not an organized attempt atgenocide, the results were similar, largely resulting fromsmallpox and other Eurasian diseases to which the natives had no immunity.
Inca cities were given Spanish Christian names and rebuilt as Spanish towns, each centered around aplaza with a church or cathedral facing an official residence. A few Inca cities like Cusco retained native masonry for the foundations of their walls. Other Inca sites, likeHuanuco Viejo, were abandoned for cities at lower altitudes more hospitable to the Spanish.
ViceroyJosé de Armendáriz reestablished the system whereby Inca nobles who could prove their ancestry were recognized ashijosdalgos of Castile. This led to a frenzy on the part of the Indigenous nobility to legitimate their status.
In the 1790s, Viceroy Francisco Gil de Taboada ordered the first official census of the population.
The last cargo of black slaves in Peru was landed in 1806. At that time, an adult male slave sold for 600 pesos.
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Viceroy Francisco de Borja y Aragón reorganized theUniversity of San Marcos andLuis Jerónimo Fernández de Cabrera founded two chairs of medicine. In the 1710s, ViceroyDiego Ladrón de Guevara established a chair of anatomy.Teodoro de Croix and Francisco Gil de Taboada founded anatomy centers. In 1810 the medical school of San Fernando was founded.
On the death of the Peruvian astronomer DoctorFrancisco Ruiz Lozano, ViceroyMelchor Liñán y Cisneros (with the approval of the Crown) gave mathematics a permanent position in the University of San Marcos. Mathematics was attached to the chair of cosmography. DoctorJuan Ramón Koening, a Belgian by birth, was named to the chair.[1]. Viceroy Manuel de Guirior created two new chairs at the university.
Luis Enríquez de Guzmán, 9th Count of Alba de Liste founded the Naval Academy of the colony. Francisco Gil de Taboada supported the navigation school.Teodoro de Croix began the Botanic Garden of Lima.
Francisco de Borja y Aragón also founded, inCusco, theColegio del Príncipe for sons of the Indigenous nobility and theColegio de San Francisco for sons of the conquistadors. Manuel de Amat y Juniet founded the Royal College of San Carlos.
The first books printed in Peru were produced byAntonio Ricardo, a printer from Turin who settled in Lima. Diego de Benavides y de la Cueva built the first theater in Lima. Manuel de Oms y de Santa Pau founded a literary academy in 1709 and promoted weekly literary discussions in the palace that attracted some of Lima's best writers. These included the famousCriollo scholarPedro Peralta y Barnuevo and several Indigenous poets. Oms introduced French and Italian fashions in the viceroyalty. The Italian musicianRocco Cerruti (1688–1760) arrived in Peru. Francisco Gil de Taboada supported the foundation of the newspaperEl Mercurio Peruano in 1791 and founded the Academy of Fine Arts.
JesuitBarnabé de Cobo (1582–1657), who explored Mexico and Peru, brought the cinchona bark from Lima to Spain in 1632, and afterwards to Rome and other parts of Italy.
In 1671,Rose of Lima was canonized byPope Clement X. Rose was the first native-born American to become a Catholic saint.Pope Benedict XIII elevated another two important Peruvian saints,Toribio Alfonso de Mogrovejo andFrancisco de Solano.
Diego Quispe Tito was a famous artist before the age of Independence.
In 1737,Jorge Juan y Santacilia andAntonio de Ulloa, Spanish scientists sent by theFrench Academy on ascientific mission to measure a degree ofmeridian arc at the equator, arrived in the colony. They also had the mission of reporting on disorganization and corruption in the government and smuggling. Their report was published later, under the titleNoticias Secretas de América (Secret News From America).
Manuel de Guirior assisted the scientific expedition ofHipólito Ruiz López,José Antonio Pavón andJoseph Dombey, sent to study the flora of the viceroyalty. The expedition lasted from 1777 to 1788. Their findings were later published asLa flora peruana y chilena (The Flora of Peru and Chile). Again a major concern was stimulating the economy, which Guirior did by adopting liberal measures in agriculture, mining, commerce and industry.
Another French influence on science in the colony wasLouis Godin, another member of the meridian expedition. He was appointedcosmógrafo mayor by Viceroy Mendoza.[2]Archived July 25, 2009, at theWayback Machine The duties ofcosmógrafo mayor included publishing almanacs and sailing instructions. Another French scientist in Peru at this time wasCharles Marie de La Condamine.
TheBalmis Expedition arrived in Lima on May 23, 1806. At the same time these viceroys adopted rigorous measures to suppress the thought of the Encyclopedists and revolutionaries in the United States and France.
alienados en el friso del Salón de Reinos del palacio del Buen Retiro, del escudo de Lima como símbolo del virreinato, vale decir el reino del Perú.
Tanto el escudo de Lima como el de la ciudad de México fueron tomados como sinécdoque de los reinos de los que eran capital, tal y como puede observarse en el Salón de Reinos de Madrid donde ambos aparecen representando a los reinos de Perú y México entre el total de los veinticuatro de los que era monarca Felipe IV
1798 - Se establece independencia administrativa de Chile respecto del Perú.
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![Coat of arms of Lima[a] of Peru](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aOld_Coat_of_arms_of_Lima.svg)
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