While he was engaged in the campaign inJudaea, EmperorNero died by suicide in June 68, plunging Rome into a year of civil war known as theYear of the Four Emperors. AfterGalba andOtho perished in quick succession,Vitellius became emperor in April 69. The Roman legions ofEgypt and Judaea reacted by declaring Vespasian, their commander, the emperor on 1 July 69.[8] In his bid for imperial power, Vespasian joined forces withMucianus, the governor ofSyria, andPrimus, a general inPannonia, leaving his sonTitus to command the besieging forces atJerusalem. Primus and Mucianus led the Flavian forces against Vitellius, while Vespasian took control of Egypt. On 20 December 69, Vitellius was defeated, and the following day Vespasian was declared emperor by the Senate.[9]
Little information survives about the government during Vespasian's ten-year rule. He reformed the financial system of the Roman Empire after the campaign against Judaea ended successfully, and initiated several ambitious construction projects, including the building of the Flavian Amphitheatre, better known today as theColosseum. Through his generalAgricola, Vespasian increased imperial expansion inBritain. Vespasian is often credited with restoring political stability to Rome following the chaotic reigns of his predecessors. After he died in 79, he was succeeded by his eldest son Titus, thus becoming the first Roman emperor to be succeeded by his natural son and establishing the Flavian dynasty.
He was educated in the countryside, inCosa, near what is todayAnsedonia,Italy, under the guidance of his paternal grandmother, so much so that even when he became emperor, he often returned to the places of his childhood, having left the formervilla exactly as it had been.[12]
Early in his life he was somewhat overshadowed by his older brother,Titus Flavius Sabinus, who had entered public life and pursued thecursus honorum, holding an important military command in theDanube.
In preparation for apraetorship, Vespasian needed two periods of service in the minormagistracies, one military and the other public. Vespasian served in the military inThracia for about three years. On his return to Rome in about 30 AD, he obtained a post in thevigintivirate, the minor magistracies, most probably in one of the posts in charge of street cleaning.[13] His early performance was so unsuccessful that EmperorCaligula reportedly stuffed handfuls ofmuck down histoga to correct the uncleaned Roman streets, formally his responsibility.[11]
During the period of the ascendancy ofSejanus, there is no record of Vespasian engaging in any significant political activity. After completion of a term in the vigintivirate, Vespasian was entitled to stand for election asquaestor, a senatorial office. However, his lack of political or family influence meant that Vespasian served as quaestor in one of the provincial posts inCrete, rather than as assistant to important men in Rome.[13]
Next he needed to gain a praetorship, carrying theImperium, but non-patricians and the less well-connected had to serve in at least one intermediary post as anaedile ortribune. Vespasian failed at his first attempt to gain an aedileship but was successful in his second attempt, becoming an aedile in 38. Despite his lack of significant family connections or success in office, he achieved praetorship in either 39 or 40, at the youngest age permitted (30), during a period of political upheaval in the organisation of elections. His long-standing relationship with freed-womanAntonia Caenis, confidential secretary toAntonia Minor (the Emperor's grandmother) and part of the circle ofcourtiers and servants around the Emperor, may have contributed to his success.[13]
Upon the accession ofClaudius as emperor in 41, Vespasian was appointedlegate ofLegio IIAugusta, stationed inGermania, thanks to the influence of the ImperialfreedmanNarcissus. In 43, Vespasian and the IIAugusta participated in theRoman invasion of Britain, and he distinguished himself under the overall command ofAulus Plautius. After participating in crucial early battles on the riversMedway andThames, he was sent to reduce the south west, penetrating through regions later known as the counties ofHampshire,Wiltshire,Dorset,Somerset,Devon andCornwall with the probable objectives of securing the south coast ports and harbours along with the tin mines of Cornwall and the silver and lead mines of Somerset.
Roman EmperorNero sends Vespasian with an army to put down the Jewish revolt, AD 66 (depiction of 1503)
His success as the legate of a legion earned him aconsulship in 51, after which he retired from public life, having incurred the enmity ofClaudius' wife,Agrippina, who was the most powerful and influential figure in her husband's reign.[11] He came out of retirement in 63 when he was sent as governor toAfrica Province. According toTacitus (ii.97), his rule was "infamous and odious" but according toSuetonius (Vesp. 4), he was "upright and, highly honourable". On one occasion, Suetonius writes, Vespasian was pelted withturnips.
Vespasian used his time in North Africa wisely. Usually, governorships were seen by ex-consuls as opportunities to extort huge amounts of money to regain the wealth they had spent on their previous political campaigns. Corruption was so rife that it was almost expected that a governor would come back from these appointments with his pockets full. However, Vespasian used his time in North Africa making friends instead of money, something that would be far more valuable in the years to come. During his time in North Africa, he found himself in financial difficulties and was forced to mortgage his estates to his brother. To revive his fortunes he turned to themule trade and gained the nicknamemulio (muleteer).[15]
Returning from Africa, Vespasian toured Greece inNero's retinue, but lost Imperial favor after paying insufficient attention (some sources suggest he fell asleep) during one of the Emperor's recitals on thelyre, and found himself in the political wilderness.
Vespasiansestertius, struck in 71 to celebrate the victory in the first Jewish–Roman War. Obverse: IMP. CAES. VESPASIAN AVG. P. M., TR. P., P. P., COS. III. The legend on the reverse says:IVDEA CAPTA, "Judaea conquered" – S. C.
In 66 AD, Vespasian was appointed to suppress the Jewish revolt underway inJudea. The fighting there had killed the previous governor and routedCestius Gallus, the governor ofSyria, when he tried to restore order. Two legions, with eight cavalry squadrons and tenauxiliary cohorts, were therefore dispatched under the command of Vespasian while his elder son, Titus, arrived fromAlexandria with another.
During this time he became the patron ofFlavius Josephus, aJewish resistance leader captured at theSiege of Yodfat, who would later write his people's history in Greek. Ultimately, thousands of Jews were killed and the Romans destroyed many towns in re-establishing control over Judea; they also took Jerusalem in 70. Vespasian is remembered by Josephus (writing as a Roman citizen), in hisAntiquities of the Jews, as a fair and humane official, in contrast with the notoriousHerod Agrippa II whom Josephus goes to great lengths to demonize.
While under the emperor's patronage, Josephus wrote that after the RomanLegio X Fretensis, accompanied by Vespasian, destroyedJericho on 21 June 68, Vespasian took a group of Jews who could not swim (possiblyEssenes fromQumran), fettered them, and threw them into theDead Sea to test the sea's legendarybuoyancy. Indeed, the captives bobbed up to the surface after being thrown in the water from the boats.
At the conclusion of the Jewish war, Josephus discussed a prophecy from sacred scripture that about the time when Jerusalem and theSecond Temple would be taken, a man from their own nation would become "governor of the habitable earth", as in theMessiah. Josephus interpreted the prophecy as denoting the government of Vespasian.[16]Tacitus agreed that the prophecy discussed Vespasian (as well as Titus), but that "the common people, with the usual blindness of ambition, had interpreted these mighty destinies of themselves, and could not be brought even by disasters to believe the truth."[17]
After the death of Nero in 68, Rome saw a succession of short-lived emperors and a year ofcivil wars.Galba was murdered by supporters ofOtho, who was defeated byVitellius. Otho's supporters, looking for another candidate to support, settled on Vespasian. According to Suetonius, a prophecy ubiquitous in the Eastern provinces claimed that fromJudaea would come the future rulers of the world. Vespasian eventually believed that this prophecy applied to him, and found a number ofomens andoracles that reinforced this belief.[18]
Although Vespasian and Titus resolved to challenge for the Principate in February 69, they made no move until later in the year. Throughout the early months of 69, Vespasian convened frequently with the Eastern generals.Gaius Licinius Mucianus was a notable ally. Governor of Syria and commander of three legions, Mucianus also held political connections to many of the most powerful Roman military commanders from Illyricum to Britannia by virtue of his service to the famous Neronian generalGnaeus Domitius Corbulo. In May 69, Mucianus formally implored Vespasian to challenge Vitellius. His appeal was followed by Vespasian's official proclamation as Emperor in early July. Under instructions from the prefectTiberius Alexander, the legions at Alexandria took an oath of loyalty to Vespasian on 1 July. They were swiftly followed by Vespasian's Judaean legions on 3 July and thereafter by Mucianus' Syrian legions on 15 July.[19]
Vitellius, the occupant of the throne, had the veteran legions ofGaul and theRhineland. But the feeling in Vespasian's favour quickly gathered strength, and the armies ofMoesia,Pannonia, andIllyricum soon declared for him.[20] Thepraefectus Aegypti, who had been governor since Nero's reign, proclaimed Vespasian emperor at Alexandria on 1 July 69 AD.[21]: 13
While Vespasian himself was in Egypt, his troops enteredItaly from the northeast under the leadership ofMarcus Antonius Primus. They defeated Vitellius' army (which had awaited him inMevania) atBedriacum (or Betriacum), sackedCremona and advanced on Rome. Vitellius hastily arranged a peace with Antonius, but the Emperor'sPraetorian Guard forced him to retain his seat. After furious fighting, Antonius' army entered Rome. In the resulting confusion, theCapitol was destroyed by fire and both Vitellius and Vespasian's brother Sabinus were killed.[20] AtAlexandria, Vespasian immediately sent supplies of urgently needed grain to Rome, along with an edict assuring he would reverse the laws of Nero, especially those relating totreason.[citation needed]
He was the first emperor since Augustus to appear in Egypt.[22]: 13 While there, he visited the Temple ofSerapis where he reportedly experienced avision, and he performed healing miracles.[20][23][22]: 14 He was hailed aspharaoh and proclaimed the son of the creator-deityAmun (Zeus-Ammon) in the style of the ancient pharaohs, and an incarnation of Serapis in the manner of the Ptolemies.[22]: 13–14
Triumph of Titus and Vespasian byGiulio Romano, ca. 1540.
Vespasian was declared emperor by the Senate while he was in Egypt on 21 December 69 through the passage of theLex de imperio Vespasiani; the Egyptians had declared him emperor in the summer. In the short-term, administration of the empire was given toMucianus, who was aided by Vespasian's son,Domitian. Mucianus started off Vespasian's rule with tax reform that was to restore the empire's finances. After Vespasian arrived in Rome in mid-70, Mucianus continued to press Vespasian to collect as many taxes as possible.[24]
Vespasian and Mucianus renewed old taxes and instituted new ones, increased the tribute of the provinces, and kept a watchful eye upon the treasury officials.
Before Vespasian,Emperor Nero introduced aurine tax on public toilets under the name ofvectigal urinae in the 1st century AD (seePay toilet). However, the tax was removed after a while and it was Vespasian's new imposition of this tax around AD 70 which we still remember to this day, possibly giving origin to the LatinproverbPecunia non olet ("Money does not stink"):[25] Writing about Vespasian in their history books,Dio Cassius andSuetonius mentioned "When [Vespasian's] sonTitus blamed him for even laying a tax upon urine, he applied to his nose a piece of the money he received in the first instalment, and asked him if it stunk. And he replying no, 'And yet,' said he, 'it is derived from urine". Since then, this phrase "Money does not stink" has been used to whitewash dubious or illegal origin ofmoney.[26][27][25][28][29][30]
In early 70 Vespasian was still in Egypt, the source of Rome's grain supply, and had not yet left for Rome. According toTacitus, his trip was delayed due to bad weather.[31] Modern historians theorize that Vespasian had been and was continuing to consolidate support from the Egyptians before departing.[32] During this period, protests erupted in Alexandria over his new tax policies and grain shipments were held up. Vespasian eventually restored order and grain shipments to Rome resumed.[24] Notably Titus attended the consecration of a newApis bull atMemphis in 70, and Vespasian's reign saw imperial patronage given to Egyptian temples: at theDakhla Oasis in theWestern Desert as well asEsna,Kom Ombo,Medinet Habu,Silsila in theNile Valley.[22]: 14
In addition to the uprising in Egypt, unrest and civil war continued in the rest of the empire in 70. Judea had beenrebelling since 66. Vespasian's son,Titus, finally subdued the rebellion with the capture of Jerusalem and destruction of theJewish Temple in 70. According toEusebius, Vespasian then ordered all descendants of the royal line ofDavid to be hunted down, causing the Jews to be persecuted from province to province. Several modern historians have suggested that Vespasian, already having been told by Josephus that he was prophesied to become emperor whilst in Judaea, was probably reacting to other widely known Messianic prophecies circulating at the time, to suppress any rival claimants arising from that dynasty.[33] The Jewish temple atLeontopolis was sacked in 73.[22]: 14
In January 70, an uprising occurred inGaul and Germany, known as the secondBatavian Rebellion. This rebellion was headed byGaius Julius Civilis andJulius Sabinus. Sabinus, claiming he was descended fromJulius Caesar, declared himself Emperor of Gaul. The rebellion defeated and absorbed two Roman legions before it was suppressed by Vespasian's son-in-law,Quintus Petillius Cerialis, by the end of 70.
In mid-70, Vespasian first went to Rome, dating histribunician years from 1 July 69.[9] Vespasian immediately embarked on a series of efforts to stay in power and prevent future revolts. He offered gifts to many in the military and much of the public.[34] Soldiers loyal to Vitellius were dismissed or punished.[35] Vespasian also restructured the Senatorial and Equestrian orders, removing his enemies and adding his allies.[36] Regional autonomy of Greek provinces was repealed.[37]
Romanaureus depicting Vespasian as Emperor. The reverse shows the goddessFortuna. Caption: IMP. CAESAR VESPASIANVS AVG. / FORTVNA AVGVST
We know from Suetonius that the "unexpected and still quite new emperor was lackingauctoritas [English:backing, support] and a certainmaiestas [English:majesty]".[38] Many modern historians note the increased amount of propaganda that appeared during Vespasian's reign.[39] A component of the propaganda was thetheology of victory, which legitimized the right to rule through successful conquest.[40] This revolved around Vespasian's victory in Judea.[40] Stories of a supernatural emperor who was destined to rule circulated in the empire.[15] Nearly one-third of all coins minted in Rome under Vespasian celebrated military victory or peace.[41] The wordvindex was removed from coins so as not to remind the public of rebelliousVindex. Construction projects bore inscriptions praising Vespasian and condemning previous emperors.[42] A temple of peace was constructed in the forum as well.[36]
Between 71 and 79, much of Vespasian's reign is a mystery. Historians report that Vespasian ordered the construction of several buildings in Rome. Additionally, he survived several conspiracies against him. Vespasian helped rebuild Rome after the civil war. He added the temple of Peace and the temple to the Deified Claudius.[36] In 75, he erected a colossal statue ofApollo, begun underNero, and he dedicated a stage of the theatre of Marcellus. He also began construction of theColosseum, using funds from the spoils of theJewish Temple after theSiege of Jerusalem.[43]Suetonius claims that Vespasian was met with "constant conspiracies" against him.[44] Only one conspiracy is known specifically, though. In 78 or 79,Eprius Marcellus andAulus Caecina Alienus attempted to kill Vespasian. Why these men turned against Vespasian is not known.
Agricola was appointed to the command of theLegio XX Valeria Victrix, stationed in Britain, in place ofMarcus Roscius Coelius, who had stirred up a mutiny against the governor,Marcus Vettius Bolanus. Britain had revolted during the year of civil war, and Bolanus was a mild governor. Agricola reimposed discipline on the legion and helped to consolidate Roman rule. In 71, Bolanus was replaced by a more aggressive governor,Quintus Petillius Cerialis, and Agricola was able to display his talents as a commander in campaigns against theBrigantes in northern England.
In his ninth consulship Vespasian had a slight illness inCampania and, returning at once to Rome, he left forAquae Cutiliae and the country aroundReate, where he spent every summer; however, his illness worsened and he developed severediarrhea.
With the feeling of death overwhelming him on his deathbed, he incited: "Vae, puto deus fio." ("Dear me, I think I'm becoming a god").[45] Then, according toSuetonius'The Twelve Caesars:
Taken on a sudden with such an attack of diarrhoea that he all but swooned, he said: "An emperor ought to die standing," and while he was struggling to get on his feet, he died in the arms of those who tried to help him, on the ninth day before the Kalends of July [June 23], at the age of sixty-nine years, seven months and seven days.
— Suetonius,Lives of the Twelve Caesars, "Life of Vespasian" §24[46]
He died on June 23, 79 AD, and was succeeded by his sonsTitus and thenDomitian.
Construction of the Flavian Amphitheatre, better known as theColosseum, was begun by Vespasian and finished by his son Titus.
Vespasian was known for his wit and his amiable manner alongside his commanding personality and military prowess. He could be liberal to impoverished Senators and equestrians and to cities and towns desolated by natural calamity. He was especially generous to men of letters andrhetors, several of whom he pensioned with salaries of as much as 1,000 gold pieces a year.Quintilian is said to have been the first public teacher who enjoyed this imperial favor.Pliny the Elder's work, theNatural History, was written during Vespasian's reign, and dedicated to Vespasian's son Titus.[47]
Vespasian distrusted philosophers in general. It was the talk of philosophers, who liked to glorify theRepublic, that provoked Vespasian into reviving the obsolete penal laws against this profession as a precautionary measure.[citation needed]
He was also noted for his benefactions to the people. Much money was spent on public works and the restoration and beautification of Rome: theTemple of Peace (also known as the Forum of Vespasian), new public baths[48] and the great show piece, theColosseum.[49]
Vespasian slightly debased thedenarius during his reign, reducing the silver purity from 93.5% to 90%. The silver weight dropped from 2.97 grams to 2.87 grams.[50]
In modernRomance languages, urinals are named after him (for example,vespasiano in Italian, andvespasienne in French),[51] probably in reference to a tax he placed on urine collection.
Vespasian approved histories written under his reign, ensuring biases against him were removed.[52] He also gave financial rewards to writers.[53] The ancient historians who lived through the period such asTacitus,Suetonius andJosephus speak suspiciously well of Vespasian while condemning the emperors who came before him.[54] Tacitus admits that his status was elevated by Vespasian, Josephus identifies Vespasian as a patron and saviour. Meanwhile,Pliny the Elder dedicated hisNatural Histories to Vespasian's son, Titus.[55]
Those who spoke against Vespasian were punished. A number ofStoic philosophers were accused of corrupting students with inappropriate teachings and were expelled from Rome.[56]Helvidius Priscus, a pro-Republic philosopher, was executed for his teachings.[57] Numerous other philosophers and writers had their works seized, destroyed and denounced for being deemed too critical of Vespasian's reign, some even posthumously.[57]
According to Suetonius' version of events, however, Vespasian "bore the frank language of his friends, the quips of pleaders, and the impudence of the philosophers with the greatest patience" as it was onlyHelvidius Priscus to be put to death after he repeatedly affronted the Emperor with studied insults which he initially tried to ignore;[58] the philosopherDemetrius for example was banished to an island and when Vespasian heard that Demetrius was still criticizing him, sending the exiled philosopher the message: "You are doing everything to force me to kill you, but I do not slay a barking dog."[59]
Sabinus and Vespasia had three children, the eldest of whom, a girl, died in infancy. The elder boy,Titus Flavius Sabinus, entered public life and pursued thecursus honorum. Vespasian on the other hand, seemed far less likely to be successful, initially not wishing to pursue high public office. He followed in his brother's footsteps when driven to it by his mother's taunting.[11]
^Suetonius,Titus 11: "[He died] two years two months and twenty days after succeeding Vespasian".
^Cassius Dio LXVI.18: "For he lived after this only two years, two months and twenty days".
^Suetonius gives 23 June (VIIII. Kal. Iul.). However, he also states that he died "at the age of sixty-nine years, seven months and seven day", i.e. he died on 24 June, although it's possible that he's usinginclusive counting.Cassius Dio (66.17) states that he "reigned ten years lacking six days", i.e. he died on 25/24 June. Both authors date Titus' ascension on 24 June.[2][3]
^M. P. Charleswroth, "Flaviana",Journal of Roman Studies 27 (1938) 54–62
^abPorter, Stanley E.; Pitts, Andrew W. (2018).Christian Origins and the Establishment of the Early Jesus Movement. Leiden: Brill. p. 303.ISBN978-90-04-37274-0.
^Jones, William "Some Thoughts on the Propaganda of Vespasian and Domitian",The Classical Journal, p. 251
^Aqueduct and roads dedication speak of previous emperors' neglect,CIL vi, 1257(ILS 218) and 931
^Alföldy, Géza (1995). "Eine Bauinschrift Aus Dem Colosseum".Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik.109:195–226.
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![Replica of a modern bust of Vespasian,[61] Pushkin Museum, Moscow](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aVespasianus01_pushkin.jpg)
