A small number of towns and cities around the world are exclusively vegetarian or have outlawed meat, includingRishikesh in India, which banned meat, fish, and eggs in 1956.[3][4] A larger number of towns and cities are vegetarian-friendly.[5] In other locations, finding vegetarian food can pose some difficulties.[6]
There are many variations of the vegetarian diet: anovo-vegetarian diet includeseggs and alacto-vegetarian diet includesdairy products, while alacto-ovo vegetarian diet includes both. As the strictest of vegetarian diets, avegan diet excludes allanimal products, and can be accompanied by abstention from the use of animal-derived products, such as leather shoes.
Vegetarian diets pose some difficulties. Forvitamin B12, depending on the presence or absence of eggs anddairy products in the diet or other reliable B12 sources, vegetarians may incur anutritional deficiency.[7] Packaged and processed foods may contain minor quantities of animal ingredients.[2][8] While some vegetarians scrutinize product labels for such ingredients, others do not object to consuming them, or are unaware of their presence.[2][9][10]
The first written use of the term "vegetarian" originated in the early 19th century, when authors referred to avegetable regimen diet.[11] Historically, 'vegetable' could be used to refer to any type of ediblevegetation.[12] Modern dictionaries explain its origin as acompound ofvegetable (adjective) and the suffix-arian (in the sense ofagrarian).[13] The term was popularized with the foundation of theVegetarian Society inManchester in 1847,[14] although it has been used before in writing first attributed to actress, writer andabolitionistFanny Kemble, in herJournal of a Residence on a Georgian plantation in 1838–1839.[a] The earliest occurrences of the term seem to be related toAlcott House—a school on the north side ofHam Common, London—which was opened in July 1838 byJames Pierrepont Greaves.[17][18][19] From 1841, it was known asA Concordium, or Industry Harmony College, and the institution then began to publish its own pamphlet,The Healthian. It provides some of the earliest appearances of the term "vegetarian".[17]
The term "vegetarian" has been in use since around 1839 to refer to what was previously called a vegetable regimen or diet.[20] Its origin is an irregular compound ofvegetable and the suffix-arian (in the sense of "supporter, believer" as inhumanitarian).[21][22]
The earliest record of vegetarianism comes from the 9th century BCE,[24] inculcating tolerance towards all living beings.[25][26]Parshwanatha andMahavira, the 23rd and 24thtirthankaras inJainism, respectively, revived and advocatedahimsa andJain vegetarianism between the 8th and 6th centuries BCE; the most comprehensive and strictest form of vegetarianism.[27][28][29] In Indian culture, vegetarianism has been closely connected with the attitude ofnonviolence towards animals (calledahimsa in India) for millennia and was promoted by religious groups and philosophers.[30] TheĀcārāṅga Sūtra from 5th century BCE advocates Jain-vegetarianism and forbids the monks from walking on grass in order to avoid inflicting pain on them and prevent small insects dwelling inside from getting killed.[31] The ancient Indian work of theTirukkuṟaḷ, dated before the 5th century CE, explicitly and unambiguously emphasizes shunning meat andnon-killing as a common man's virtues.[32]: 156–171 [33]: 13 [34]: 127–129 Chapter 26 of the Tirukkural, particularlycouplets 251–260, deals exclusively on moral vegetarianism or veganism.[35]: 156–171 [36]
Vegetarianism in ancient India Throughout the whole country the people do not kill any living creature, nor drink intoxicating liquor, nor eat onions or garlic. The only exception is that of the Chandalas. That is the name for those who are (held to be) wicked men, and live apart from others. ... In that country they do not keep pigs and fowls, and do not sell live cattle; in the markets there are no butchers' shops and no dealers in intoxicating drink. In buying and selling commodities they use cowries. Only the Chandalas are fishermen and hunters, and sell flesh meat.
—Faxian, Chinese pilgrim to India (4th/5th century CE), A Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms (translated byJames Legge)[37][38]
Among theHellenes,Egyptians, and others, vegetarianism had medical orritual purification purposes. Vegetarianism was also practiced inancient Greece and the earliest reliable evidence for vegetarian theory and practice in Greece dates from the 6th century BCE. TheOrphics, a religious movement spreading in Greece at that time, also practiced and promoted vegetarianism.[39] Greek teacherPythagoras, who promoted the altruistic doctrine ofmetempsychosis, may have practiced vegetarianism,[40] but is also recorded as eating meat.[41] A fictionalized portrayal of Pythagoras appears inOvid'sMetamorphoses, in which he advocates a form ofstrict vegetarianism.[42] It was through this portrayal that Pythagoras was best known to English-speakers throughout the early modern period and, prior to the coinage of the word "vegetarianism", vegetarians were referred to in English as "Pythagoreans".[42] Vegetarianism was also practiced about six centuries later in another instance (30 BCE–50 CE) in the northernThracian region by theMoesi tribe (who inhabited present-daySerbia andBulgaria), feeding themselves on honey, milk, and cheese.[43]
InJapan in 675, theEmperor Tenmu prohibited the killing and the eating of meat during the busy farming period between April and September but excluded the eating of wild birds and wild animals. These bans and several others that followed over the centuries were overturned in the nineteenth century during theMeiji Restoration.[44] In China, during theSong dynasty,Buddhist cuisine became popular enough that vegetarian restaurants appeared where chefs used ingredients such asbeans,gluten, root vegetables andmushrooms to createmeat analogues including pork, fowl, eggs and crab roe[45][46] and many meat substitutes used even today such astofu,seitan andkonjac originate in Chinese Buddhist cuisine.
Labeling is mandatory in India to distinguish vegetarian products (green) from non-vegetarian products (brown).[47]
Following the Christianization of the Roman Empire inlate antiquity, vegetarianism practically disappeared from Europe, as it did elsewhere, except in India.[48] Several orders ofmonks inmedieval Europe restricted or banned the consumption of meat forascetic reasons, but none of them eschewed fish.[49] Moreover, the medieval definition of "fish" included such animals as seals,porpoises,dolphins,barnacle geese,puffins, andbeavers.[50] Vegetarianism re-emerged during theRenaissance,[51] becoming more widespread in the 19th and 20th centuries. In 1847, the firstVegetarian Society was founded in the United Kingdom;[52] Germany, the Netherlands, and other countries followed. In 1886, the vegetarian colonyNueva Germania was founded inParaguay, though its vegetarian aspect would prove short-lived.[53]: 345–358 TheInternational Vegetarian Union, an association of the national societies, was founded in 1908. In the Western world, the popularity of vegetarianism grew during the 20th century as a result of nutritional, ethical, and—more recently—environmental and economic concerns.
A small number of cities, towns, and intentional communities around the world are exclusively vegetarian where no meat is sold or consumed due to religious and cultural influences. In all-vegetarian locations, meat and sometimes other animal products are sometimes officially outlawed. In other exclusively vegetarian cities, meat is not sold or served due to cultural influences but is not officially outlawed. Some religious centers in India have banned all meat sales within municipal boundaries. For example, in 1956, Rishikesh banned the sale of meat, fish, and eggs.[54]
Locations where residents are vegetarian and only vegetarian food is consumed within city limits include:
Amirim, Israel. Founded in 1958 on vegetarian principles, the town features vegetarian guest houses and had a population of 865 in 2022.[55]
Haridwar in Uttarakhand, India. In 2002 meat sales were banned in Haridwar. The ban was upheld by the Supreme Court in 2004.[57]
New Vrindaban in West Virginia, United States. Founded in 1968 byKirtanananda Swami, New Virndaban is a vegetarian, intentional community.[58]
Palitana in Gujarat, India. In 2014, Palitana banned meat sales.[59]
Pushkar in Rajasthan, India. Pushkar is one of the world's oldest cities and a religious center. Because of its holy status and number of temples, Pushkar is a vegetarian city where the sale of meat, fish, eggs, and alcohol are all banned.[60]
Rishikesh in Uttarakhand, India. In 1956, Rishikesh banned the sale of meat, fish, and eggs.[54]
The percentage of vegetarians varies by country. India has the highest percentage of vegetarian residents, and Mexico has the second highest percentage of vegetarian residents.[62] In general, vegetarians are a minority.[63] However, a number of cities and towns around the world have much larger vegetarian populations who constitute a majority of municipal residents. Heavily-vegetarian locations include:
Veganism excludes all animal flesh and by-products, such as eggs, milk, honey,[65]edible bird's nest and items refined or manufactured through any such product, such as animal-testedbaking soda or white sugar refined withbone char.
Raw veganism includes only fresh and uncooked fruit, nuts, seeds, and vegetables. Food must not be heated above 118 °F (48 °C) to be considered "raw". Usually, raw vegan food is only ever "cooked" with afood dehydrator at low temperatures.
Comparison of selected vegetarian and non-vegetarian diets
Within the "ovo-" groups, there are many who refuse to consume fertilizedeggs (withbalut being an extreme example); however, such distinction is typically not specifically addressed.
Some vegetarians also avoid products that may use animal ingredients not included in their labels or which use animal products in their manufacturing. For example, sugars that are whitened withbone char, cheeses that use animalrennet (enzymes from animal stomach lining), gelatin (derived from thecollagen inside animals' skin, bones, andconnective tissue), somecane sugar (but notbeet sugar) and beverages (such as apple juice and alcohol) clarified with gelatin or crushed shellfish andsturgeon, while other vegetarians are unaware of, or do not mind, such ingredients.[2][8][9] In the 21st century, 90% of rennet andchymosin used in cheesemaking are derived from industrialfermentation processes, which satisfy bothkosher andhalal requirements.[66]
Individuals sometimes label themselves "vegetarian" while practicing asemi-vegetarian diet,[67][68][69] as some dictionary definitions describe vegetarianism as sometimes including the consumption of fish,[70] or only includemammalian flesh as part of their definition of meat,[70][71] while other definitions exclude fish and all animal flesh.[72] In other cases, individuals may describe themselves as "flexitarian".[68][73]These diets may be followed by those who reduce animal flesh consumed as a way of transitioning to a complete vegetarian diet or for health, ethical, environmental, or other reasons. Semi-vegetarian diets include:
Pescetarianism, which includes fish and possibly other forms of seafood.
Pollotarianism, which includes chicken and possibly other poultry.
Semi-vegetarianism is contested by vegetarian groups, such as theVegetarian Society, which states that vegetarianism excludes all animal flesh.[72]
Consumption of eggs is not considered to be a part of a vegetarian diet in India, as egg is an animal product that gives birth to the next generation of the relevant species.
On average, vegetarians consume a lower proportion of calories from fat (particularly saturated fatty acids), fewer overall calories, more fiber, potassium, and vitamin C, than do non-vegetarians. Vegetarians generally have a lower body mass index. These characteristics and other lifestyle factors associated with a vegetarian diet may contribute to the positive health outcomes that have been identified among vegetarians.
In Western countries, the most common motive for people practicing vegetarianism is health consciousness.[75][76] TheAcademy of Nutrition and Dietetics has stated that at all stages of life, a properly planned vegetarian diet can be "healthful, nutritionally adequate, and may be beneficial in the prevention and treatment of certain diseases."[77] Vegetarian diets offer lower levels ofsaturated fat,cholesterol and animal protein, and higher levels of carbohydrates,fibre,magnesium,potassium,folate,vitaminsC andE, andphytochemicals.[77][78]
Studies have shown that a (non-lacto) vegetarian diet may increase the risk of calcium deficiency and lowbone mineral density.[79] A 2019 review found that vegetarians have lower bone mineral density at thefemoral neck andlumbar spine compared to omnivores.[80] A 2020 meta-analysis found that infants fed a lacto-vegetarian diet exhibited normal growth and development.[79] A 2021 review found no differences in growth between vegetarian and meat-eating children.[81]
Reviews of vegan and vegetarian diets showed a possible association withdepression andanxiety, particularly among people under 26 years old.[85][86] Another review found no significant associations between a vegetarian diet and depression or anxiety.[87]
TheAmerican Dietetic Association discussed that vegetarian diets may be more common among adolescents witheating disorders, indicating that vegetarian diets do not cause eating disorders, but rather "vegetarian diets may be selected to camouflage an existing eating disorder".[88]
A 2012 study found a reduced risk inall-cause mortality in vegetarians.[89] A 2017 review found a lower mortality (−25%) from ischemic heart disease.[90]
Western vegetarian diets are typically high incarotenoids, but relatively low inomega-3 fatty acids andvitamin B12.[91] Vegans can have particularly low intake ofvitamin B andcalcium if they do not eat enough items such ascollard greens,leafy greens,tempeh andtofu (soy).[92] High levels of dietary fiber,folic acid, vitamins C and E, and magnesium, and low consumption of saturated fat are all considered to be beneficial aspects of a vegetarian diet.[93] A well planned vegetarian diet will provide all nutrients in a meat-eater's diet to the same level for all stages of life.[94]
Protein intake in vegetarian diets tends to be lower than in meat diets but can meet the daily requirements for most people.[95] Studies atHarvard University as well as other studies conducted in the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, Australia,New Zealand, and various European countries, confirmed that vegetarian diets provide sufficient protein intake as long as a variety of plant sources are available and consumed.[96]
Vegetarian diets typically contain similar levels of iron to non-vegetarian diets, but this has lowerbioavailability than iron from meat sources, and its absorption can sometimes be inhibited by other dietary constituents.[97] According to the Vegetarian Resource Group, consuming food that contains vitamin C, such as citrus fruit or juices, tomatoes, or broccoli, is a good way to increase the amount of iron absorbed at a meal.[98] Vegetarian foods rich in iron includeblack beans,cashews,hempseed,kidney beans,broccoli,lentils,oatmeal,raisins,jaggery,spinach,cabbage, lettuce,black-eyed peas,soybeans, manybreakfast cereals,sunflower seeds,chickpeas,tomato juice,tempeh,molasses,thyme, andwhole-wheat bread.[99][failed verification] The related vegan diets can often be higher in iron than vegetarian diets, because dairy products are low in iron.[93] Iron stores often tend to be lower in vegetarians than non-vegetarians, and a few small studies report very high rates of iron deficiency (up to 40%,[100] and 58%[101] of the respective vegetarian or vegan groups). However, theAmerican Dietetic Association states that iron deficiency is no more common in vegetarians than non-vegetarians (adult males are rarely iron deficient); iron deficiencyanaemia is rare no matter the diet.[102]
Calcium intake in vegetarians and vegans can be similar to non-vegetarians, as long as the diet is properly planned.[111] Lacto-ovo vegetarians that include dairy products can still obtain calcium from dairy sources like milk, yogurt, and cheese.[112]
Non-dairy milks that are fortified with calcium, such as soymilk andalmond milk can also contribute a significant amount of calcium in the diet.[113]Broccoli,bok choy, andkale have also been found to have calcium that is well absorbed in the body.[111][112][114] Though the calcium content per serving is lower in these vegetables than a glass of milk, the absorption of the calcium into the body is higher.[112][114] Other foods that contain calcium include calcium-set tofu, blackstrap molasses,turnip greens, mustard greens, soybeans, tempeh, almonds, okra, dried figs, andtahini.[111][113] Though calcium can be found inSpinach,swiss chard,beans andbeet greens, they are generally not considered to be a good source since the calcium binds to oxalic acid and is poorly absorbed into the body.[112] Phytic acid found in nuts, seeds, and beans may also impact calcium absorption rates.[112] See the National Institutes of Health Office of Dietary Supplements for calcium needs for various ages,[112] the Vegetarian Resource Group[113] and the Vegetarian Nutrition Calcium Fact Sheet from the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics[111] for more specifics on how to obtain adequate calcium intake on a vegetarian or vegan diet.
Vitamin D needs can be met via the human body's own generation upon sufficient and sensible exposure to ultraviolet (UV) light in sunlight.[115][116] Products including milk,soy milk andcereal grains may befortified to provide a source of vitamin D.[117] For those who do not get adequate sun exposure or food sources, vitamin D supplementation may be necessary.
Mushroom powder, any species, illuminated with sunlight or artificial ultraviolet light sources
Vitamin D2, orergocalciferol is found in fungus (exceptalfalfa which is aplantae) and created fromviosterol, which in turn is created when ultraviolet light activatesergosterol (which is found in fungi and named as asterol fromergot). AnyUV-irradiated fungus includingyeast form vitamin D2.[120] Human bioavailability of vitamin D2 from vitamin D2-enhanced button mushrooms via UV-B irradiation is effective in improving vitamin D status and not different from a vitamin D2 supplement according to study.[121] For example, vitamin D2 from UV-irradiated yeast baked into bread is bioavailable.[122]By visual assessment or using a chromometer, no significant discoloration of irradiated mushrooms, as measured by the degree of "whiteness", was observed[123] making it hard to discover if they have been treated without labeling. Claims have been made that a normal serving (approx. 3 oz or 1/2 cup, or 60 grams) of mushrooms treated with ultraviolet light increase their vitamin D content to levels up to 80 micrograms,[124] or 2700 IU if exposed to just 5 minutes of UV light after being harvested.[125]
Choline is a nutrient that helps transfer signals between nerve cells and is involved in liver function. It is highest in dairy foods and meat but it is possible to be obtained through a vegan diet.[126]
With regard to the ethics of eating meat, scholars consider vegetarianism anideology and asocial movement.[127][128] Ethical reasons for choosing vegetarianism vary and are usually predicated on the interests ofnon-human animals. In many societies, controversies and debates have arisen over the ethics of eating animals. Some people, while not vegetarians, refuse to eat the flesh of certain animals due to culturaltaboo, such as cats, dogs, horses or rabbits. Others support meat eating for scientific, nutritional and cultural reasons, including religious ones. Some meat eaters abstain from the meat of animals reared in particular ways, such asfactory farms, or avoid certain meats, such asveal orfoie gras. Some people follow vegetarian orvegan diets not because of moral concerns involving the raising or consumption of animals in general, but because of concerns about the specific treatment and practices involved in the processing of animals for food. Others still avoid meat out of concern that meat production places a greater burden on the environment than production of an equivalent amount of plantprotein.[129] Ethical objections based on consideration for animals are generally divided into opposition to the act of killing in general, and opposition to certainagricultural practices surrounding theproduction of meat.
Ethical vegetarians believe that killing an animal, like killing a human, especially one who has equal or lesser cognitive abilities than the animals in question, can only be justified in extreme circumstances and that consuming a living creature for its enjoyable taste, convenience, ornutrition value is not a sufficient cause.[130] Another common view is that humans are morally conscious of their behavior in a way other animals are not, and therefore subject to higher standards.[131]Jeff McMahan proposes that denying the right to life and humane treatment to animals with equal or greater cognitive abilities than mentally disabled humans is an arbitrary and discriminatory practice based on habit instead of logic.[132] Opponents of ethical vegetarianism argue that animals are notmoral equals to humans and so consider the comparison of eating livestock with killing people to be fallacious. This view does not excuse cruelty, but maintains that animals do not possess the rights a human has.[133]
One of the main differences between avegan and alacto-ovo vegetarian diet is the avoidance of botheggs anddairy products such as milk, cheese, butter and yogurt.Ethical vegans do not consume dairy or eggs because they state that their production causes the animal suffering or a premature death.[134]
To produce milk fromdairy cattle, farmers separate calves from their mothers soon after birth to retain cow milk for human consumption.[135]
Ethical vegetarianism has become popular in developed countries particularly because of the spread offactory farming and environmental consciousness. Some believe that the current mass-demand for meat cannot be satisfied without a mass-production system that disregards the welfare of animals, while others believe that practices like well-managedfree-range farming or the consumption ofgame (particularly from species whose natural predators have been significantly eliminated) could substantially alleviate consumer demand for mass-produced meat.[136]
While there are no dietary restrictions in theBaháʼí Faith,`Abdu'l-Bahá, the son of the religion's founder, noted that a vegetarian diet consisting of fruits and grains was desirable, except for people with a weak constitution or those that are sick.[142] He stated that there are no requirements that Baháʼís become vegetarian, but that a future society should gradually become vegetarian.[142][143][144] `Abdu'l-Bahá also stated that killing animals was contrary to compassion.[142] WhileShoghi Effendi, the head of the Bahá'í Faith in the first half of the 20th century, stated that a purely vegetarian diet would be preferable since it avoided killing animals,[145] both he and theUniversal House of Justice, the governing body of the Baháʼís have stated that these teachings do not constitute a Baháʼí practice and that Baháʼís can choose to eat whatever they wish but should be respectful of others' beliefs.[142]
Theravadins in general eat meat.[146] If Buddhist monks "see, hear or know" a living animal was killed specifically for them to eat, they must refuse it or else incur an offense.[147] However, this does not include eating meat which was given as alms or commercially purchased. In the Theravada canon,Shakyamuni Buddha did not make any comment discouraging them from eating meat (except specific types, such as human,elephant,horse,dog,snake, lion, tiger, leopard,bear, and hyena flesh[148]) but he specifically refused to institute vegetarianism in his monastic code when a suggestion had been made.[b][149]
In severalSanskrit texts ofMahayana Buddhism, Buddha instructs his followers to avoid meat.[150][151][152][153] However, each branch of Mahayana Buddhism selects which sutra to follow, and some branches, including the majority of Tibetan and Japanese Buddhists, actually do eat meat.[154][155]
Meanwhile, Chinese, Korean, Vietnamese Buddhism (in some sectors ofEast Asian Buddhism) monks and nuns are expected to abstain from meat, and traditionally, to abstain from eggs and dairy as well.[156][157][158][159][160]
Different Buddhist traditions have differing teachings on diet, which may also vary for ordained monks and nuns compared to others. Many interpret theprecept "not to kill" to require abstinence from meat, but not all. In Taiwan,su vegetarianism excludes not only all animal products but also vegetables in theallium family (which have the characteristic aroma of onion and garlic): onion, garlic, scallions, leeks, chives, or shallots.
Various groups within Christianity have practiced specific dietary restrictions for various reasons.[161] TheCouncil of Jerusalem in around 50 AD, recommended Christians keep following some of the Jewish food laws concerning meat. The early sect known as theEbionites are considered to have practiced vegetarianism. Surviving fragments from theirGospel indicate their belief that – as Christ is the Passover sacrifice and eating the Passover lamb is no longer required – a vegetarian diet may (or should) be observed. However, orthodox Christianity does not accept their teaching as authentic. Indeed, their specific injunction to strict vegetarianism was cited as one of the Ebionites' "errors".[162][163]
Seventh-day Adventists are encouraged to engage in healthy eating practices, and lacto-ovo-vegetarian diets are recommended by the General Conference of Seventh-day Adventists Nutrition Council (GCNC). They have also sponsored and participated in many scientific studies exploring the impact of dietary decisions upon health outcomes.[167] The GCNC has in addition adapted theUSDA'sfood pyramid for a vegetarian dietary approach.[167][168] However, the only kinds of meat specifically frowned upon by the SDA health message areunclean meats, or those forbidden in scripture.[169]
Additionally, somemonastic orders follow apescatarian diet, and members of theEastern Orthodox Church follow a vegan diet during fasts.[170] There is also a strong association between theQuakers and vegetarianism dating back at least to the 18th century. The association grew in prominence during the 19th century, coupled with growing Quaker concerns in connection with alcohol consumption, anti-vivisection and social purity. The association between the Quaker tradition and vegetarianism, however, becomes most significant with the founding of the Friends' Vegetarian Society in 1902 "to spread a kindlier way of living amongst the Society of Friends."[171]
Research funded by the U.S.National Institutes of Health has shown that the average Adventist inCalifornia lives 4 to 10 years longer than the average Californian.The research, as cited by the cover story of the November 2005 issue ofNational Geographic, asserts that Adventists live longer because they do not smoke or drink alcohol, have a day of rest every week, and maintain a healthy, low-fat vegetarian diet that is rich in nuts and beans.[174] The cohesiveness of Adventists' social networks has also been put forward as an explanation for their extended lifespan.[175]SinceDan Buettner's 2005National Geographic story about Adventist longevity, his book,The Blue Zones: Lessons for Living Longer From the People Who've Lived the Longest, namedLoma Linda, California, a "blue zone" because of the large concentration of Seventh-day Adventists. He cites the Adventist emphasis on health, diet, and Sabbath-keeping as primary factors for Adventist longevity.[176]
An estimated 35% of Adventists practice vegetarianism orveganism, according to a 2002 worldwide survey of local church leaders.[177][178] North American Adventist health study recruitments from 2001 to 2007 found a similar prevalence of vegetarianism/veganism. A small majority of Adventists, 54%, were conventional meat-eaters. Of the remaining 46% it was found that 28% wereOvo/Lacto-vegetarians, 10% werePesco-vegetarians and 8% were vegans. It is common for Adventists who choose to eat meat to also eat plant-based foods; 6% of the "meat-eaters" group restricted their intake of meat/fish to no more than once per week.[179]
Though there is no strict rule on what to consume and what not to, the food habits of Hindus vary according to their specific caste and sub-caste, community, location, custom and varying traditions. Historically and currently, a majority ofHindus (about 70%) eat meat, while a large proportion of Hindus are vegetarian (about 30%).[180]
Some sects ofHinduism such asVaishnavism follow the purest form of vegetarianism as an ideal whileShaktism andTantric sects freely consume chicken, mutton (goat and sheep meat), fish and eggs. The reasons stated byJains andVaishnavas are: the principle of nonviolence (ahimsa) applied to animals;[181] the intention to offer only "pure" (vegetarian) food to a deity and then to receive it back asprasada; and the conviction that asattvic diet is beneficial for a healthy body. Asattvic diet islacto-vegetarian, which includes dairy, but excludes eggs.[182] An overwhelming majority of the Hindus consider the cow to be a holy and sacred animal whoseslaughter for meat is forbidden. Thus,beef is a taboo for the majority of Hindus, Jains and Sikhs[183]
Some followers of Islam, or Muslims, chose to be vegetarian for health, ethical, or personal reasons. However, the choice to become vegetarian for non-medical reasons can sometimes be controversial due to conflictingfatwas and differing interpretations of theQuran. Though some more traditional Muslims may keep quiet about their vegetarian diet, the number of vegetarian Muslims is increasing.[184][185]
In January 1996, The International Vegetarian Union announced the formation of the Muslim Vegetarian/Vegan Society.[188]
Many non-vegetarian Muslims will select vegetarian (or seafood) options when dining in non-halal restaurants. However, this is a matter of not having the right kind of meat rather than preferring not to eat meat on the whole.[185]
Followers ofJainism believe that all living organisms, including microorganisms, are living and have a soul, and have one or more senses out of five senses. They go to great lengths to minimise any harm to any living organism. Most Jains are lacto-vegetarians, but more devout Jains do not eat root vegetables, because they believe that root vegetables contain many more microorganisms as compared to other vegetables, and that, by eating them, violence against these microorganisms is inevitable. They therefore prefer eating beans and fruits, whose cultivation involves killing fewer microorganisms. No products obtained from already-dead animals are allowed because of potential violence against decomposing microorganisms.[189][190] Some particularly dedicated individuals arefruitarians.[191] Honey is forbidden, being the regurgitation of nectar by bees[192] and potentially containing eggs, excreta and dead bees. Many Jains do not consume plant parts that grow underground such as roots and bulbs, because the plants themselves and tiny animals may be killed when the plants are pulled up.[193]
While classical Jewish law neither requires nor prohibits the consumption of meat, Jewish vegetarians often cite Jewish principles regardinganimal welfare,environmental ethics, moral character, andhealth as reasons for adopting a vegetarian or vegan diet.[194]
Rabbis may advocate vegetarianism or veganism primarily because of concerns about animal welfare, especially in light of the traditional prohibition on causing unnecessary "pain to living creatures" (tza'ar ba'alei hayyim).[195][196] Some Jewish vegetarian groups and activists believe that thehalakhic permission to eat meat is a temporary leniency for those who are not ready yet to accept the vegetarian diet.[197]
Thebook of Daniel starts in its first chapter with the benefits of vegetarianism.[198] Due to its size, its late time of origin and its revealing content, the book is of particular importance for the time of the following exile, which lasts now for 2000 years and technically still goes on until the Temple in Jerusalem is rebuilt. A diet described as "pulse and water" is presented along benefits such as accordance with the biblical dietary laws, health, beauty, wisdom and vision. Vegetarianism can be seen as a safeguard around the dietary laws or the beautification of them.
Jewish vegetarianism and veganism have become especially popular amongIsraeli Jews. In 2016, Israel was described as "the most vegan country on Earth", as five percent of its population eschewed all animal products.[199] Interest in veganism has grown among both non-Orthodox and Orthodox Jews in Israel.[200]
Within the Afro-Caribbean community, a minority areRastafari and follow the dietary regulations with varying degrees of strictness. The most orthodox eat only "Ital" or natural foods, in which the matching of herbs or spices with vegetables is the result of long tradition originating from the African ancestry and cultural heritage of Rastafari.[201] "Ital", which is derived from the word vital, means essential to human existence. Ital cooking in its strictest form prohibits the use of salt, meat (especially pork), preservatives, colorings, flavorings and anything artificial.[202] Most Rastafari are vegetarian.[203]
At the Sikhlangar, all people eat a vegetarian meal as equals.
The tenets ofSikhism do not advocate a particular stance on either vegetarianism or the consumption of meat,[204][205][206][207] but leave the decision of diet to the individual.[208] The tenth guru,Guru Gobind Singh, however, prohibited "Amritdhari" Sikhs, or those that follow theSikh Rehat Maryada (the Official Sikh Code of Conduct)[209] from eatingKutha meat, or meat which has been obtained from animals which have been killed in a ritualistic way. This is understood to have been for the political reason of maintaining independence from the then-new Muslim hegemony, as Muslims largely adhere to the ritualistichalal diet.[204][208]
"Amritdharis" that belong to some Sikh sects (e.g.Akhand Kirtani Jatha,Damdami Taksal,Namdhari[210] and Rarionwalay,[211] etc.) are vehemently against the consumption of meat and eggs (though they do consume and encourage the consumption of milk, butter and cheese).[212] This vegetarian stance has been traced back to the times of theBritish Raj, with the advent of many newVaishnava converts.[208] In response to the varying views on diet throughout the Sikh population,Sikh Gurus have sought to clarify the Sikh view on diet, stressing their preference only for simplicity of diet.Guru Nanak said that over-consumption of food (Lobh, Greed) involves a drain on the Earth's resources and thus on life.[213][214] Passages from theGuru Granth Sahib (the holy book of Sikhs, also known as theAdi Granth) say that it is "foolish" to argue for the superiority of animal life, because though all life is related, only human life carries more importance: "Only fools argue whether to eat meat or not. Who can define what is meat and what is not meat? Who knows where the sin lies, being a vegetarian or a non-vegetarian?"[208] The Sikhlangar, or free temple meal, is largely lacto-vegetarian, though this is understood to be a result of efforts to present a meal that is respectful of the diets of any person who would wish to dine, rather than out of dogma.[207][208]
Environmental vegetarianism is based on the concern that the production of meat and animal products for mass consumption, especially throughfactory farming, isenvironmentallyunsustainable. According to a 2006 United Nations initiative, the livestock industry is one of the largest contributors toenvironmental degradation worldwide, and modern practices of raising animals for food contribute on a "massive scale" to air and water pollution,land degradation, climate change, andloss of biodiversity. The initiative concluded that "the livestock sector emerges as one of the top two or three most significant contributors to the most serious environmental problems, at every scale from local to global."[215]
In addition, animal agriculture is a large source of greenhouse gases. According to a 2006 report it is responsible for 18% of the world's greenhouse gas emissions as estimated in 100-year CO2 equivalents. Livestock sources (including enteric fermentation and manure) account for about 3.1 percent of US anthropogenic GHG emissions expressed as carbon dioxide equivalents.[216] This EPA estimate is based on methodologies agreed to by the Conference of Parties of the UNFCCC, with 100-year global warming potentials from the IPCC Second Assessment Report used in estimating GHG emissions as carbon dioxide equivalents.
Meat produced in a laboratory (calledin vitro meat) may be more environmentally sustainable than regularly produced meat.[217] Reactions of vegetarians vary.[218] Rearing a relatively small number of grazing animals can be beneficial, as the Food Climate Research Network at Surrey University reports: "A little bit of livestock production is probably a good thing for the environment".[219]
In May 2009,Ghent, Belgium, was reported to be "the first [city] in the world to go vegetarian at least once a week" for environmental reasons, when local authorities decided to implement a "weekly meatless day". Civil servants would eat vegetarian meals one day per week, in recognition of the United Nations' report. Posters were put up by local authorities to encourage the population to take part on vegetarian days, and "veggie street maps" were printed to highlight vegetarian restaurants. In September 2009, schools in Ghent are due to have a weeklyveggiedag ("vegetarian day") too.[220]
Public opinion and acceptance of meat-free food is expected to be more successful if its descriptive words focus less on the health aspects and more on the flavor.[221]
Some groups, such asPETA, promote vegetarianism as a way to offset poor treatment and working conditions of workers in the contemporarymeat industry.[222] These groups cite studies showing the psychological damage caused by working in the meat industry, especially in factory and industrialised settings, and argue that the meat industry violates its labourers' human rights by assigning difficult and distressing tasks without adequate counselling, training and debriefing.[223][224][225] However, the working conditions of agricultural workers as a whole, particularly non-permanent workers, remain poor and well below conditions prevailing in other economic sectors.[226] Accidents, including pesticide poisoning, among farmers and plantation workers contribute to increased health risks, including increased mortality.[227] According to theInternational Labour Organization, agriculture is one of the three most dangerous jobs in the world[clarification needed].[228]
Some vegetarians are economic vegetarians who avoid meat due to cost considerations. Vegetarians also have an impact on the economy. In 2022, sales of vegetarian food in the UK was estimated at £1.16 billion.[229] The US-based Plant Based Food Association found that the sales of plant-based foods in the U.S. alone amounts to $13.7 billion a year.[230] Vegans have been found to influence the business at restaurants through what is referred to as thevegan veto vote.
Similar to environmental vegetarianism is the concept ofeconomic vegetarianism. An economic vegetarian is someone who practices vegetarianism from either the philosophical viewpoint concerning issues such as public health and curbing world starvation, the belief that the consumption of meat is economically unsound, part of a conscioussimple living strategy or just out of necessity. According to theWorldwatch Institute, "Massive reductions in meat consumption in industrial nations will ease their health care burden while improving public health; declining livestock herds will take pressure off rangelands and grainlands, allowing the agricultural resource base to rejuvenate. As populations grow, lowering meat consumption worldwide will allow more efficient use of declining per capita land and water resources, while at the same time making grain more affordable to the world's chronically hungry."[231] According to estimates in 2016, adoption of vegetarianism would contribute substantially to global healthcare and environmental savings.[232]
Research suggests that, at least in the United States, vegetarianism has a high turnover rate, with less than 20% of adopters persisting for more than a year.[234] Research shows that lacking social support contributes to lapses.[235][236][better source needed] A 2019 analysis found that adhering to any kind of restricted diet (gluten-free, vegetarian, kosher, teetotal) was associated with feelings of loneliness and increased social isolation.[237]
Vegetarians or vegans who adopted their diet abruptly might be more likely to eventually abandon it when compared to individuals adopting their diet gradually with incremental changes.[238]
The rate of vegetarianism by country varies substantially from relatively low levels in countries such as the Netherlands (5%)[239] to more considerable levels in India (20–40%).[240][241] Estimates for the number of vegetarians per country can be subject to methodological difficulties, as respondents may identify as vegetarian even if they include some meat in their diet, and thus some researchers suggest the percentage of vegetarians may be significantly overestimated.[242]
Vegetarianism is occasionallydepicted in mass media. Some scholars have argued thatmass media serves as a "source of information for individuals" interested in vegetarianism orveganism,[243] while there are "increasing social sanctions against eating meat".[244][245] Over time, societal attitudes of vegetarianism have changed, as have perceptions of vegetarianism in popular culture, leading to more "vegetarian sentiment".[246] Even so, there are still existing "meat-based" food metaphors which infuse daily speech,[247] and those who are vegetarian and vegan are met with "acceptance, tolerance, or hostility" after they divulge they are vegetarian or vegan.[248] Some writers, such as John L. Cunningham, editor of the Vegetarian Resource Group's newsletter, have argued for "more sympathetic vegetarian characters in the mass media".[249]
In Western literature, vegetarianism, and topics that relate to it, have informed a "gamut of literary genres", whetherliterary fiction or those fictions focusing onutopias,dystopias, orapocalypses, with authors shaped by questions about human identity and "our relation to the environment", implicating vegetarianism and veganism.[250][251] Others have pointed to the lack of "memorable characters" who are vegetarian.[252] There are also vegetarian themes inhorror fiction,[253]science fiction[254] and poetry.[255]
InIrene Clyde's 1909feminist utopian novel,Beatrice the Sixteenth, Mary Hatherley accidentallytravels through time, discovering alost world, which is apostgender society named Armeria, with the inhabitants following a strict vegetarian diet, having ceased to slaughter animals for over a thousand years. Some reviewers of the book praised the vegetarianism of the Armerians.[258]
James Joyce's 1922 novel,Ulysses is said to have vegetarian themes. Scholar Peter Adkins argued that while Joyce was critical of the vegetarianism of George A.E. Russell, the novel engages with "questions of animal ethics through its portrayal of Ireland's cattle industry, animal slaughter and the cultural currency of meat," unlike some of his other novels. He also stated that the novel "historicizes and theorizes animal life and death," and that it demonstrates the ways that symbolism and materiality of meat are "co-opted within patriarchal political structures," putting it in the same space as theorists likeCarol J. Adams,Donna J. Haraway,Laura Wright, andCary Wolfe, and writers such asJ. M. Coetzee.[259]
In 1997, S. Reneé Wheeler wrote in theVegetarian Journal, saying that "finding books with vegetarian themes" is important for helping children "feel legitimate in being vegetarian."[260] In 2004, writerJ. M. Coetzee argued that since the "mode of consciousness of nonhuman species is quite different from human consciousness," it is hard for writers to realize this for animals, with a "temptation to project upon them feelings and thoughts thatmay belong only to our own human mind and heart," and stated that reviewers have ignored the presence of animals in his books. He also stated that animals are present in his "fiction either not at all or in a merely subsidiary role" because they occupy "a subsidiary place in our lives" and argued that it is not "possible to write about the inner lives of animals in any complex way."[261]
In 2014,The New Yorker published ashort story byJonathan Lethem titled "Pending Vegan"[262] which follows "one family, a husband and wife and their four-year-old twin daughters" on a trip toSeaWorld inSan Diego,California. The protagonist of the story, Paul Espeseth, renames himself "Pending Vegan" in order to acknowledge his "increasing uneasiness with the relationship between man and beast."[263]
In 2016, a three-part Korean novel byHan Kang titledThe Vegetarian was published in the U.S.,[c] which focuses on a woman named Young-hye, who "sees vegetarianism as a way of not inflicting harm on anything," with eating meat symbolizing human violence itself, and later identifies as a plant rather than as a human "and stops eating entirely."[264] Some argued the book was more aboutmental illness than vegetarianism.[265] Others compared it to fictional works byMargaret Atwood.[266]
Mr.Spock ofStar Trek has been called "television's first vegetarian." He and his fellowVulcans do not eat meat due to a "philosophy of non-violence."[271] He is identified as vegetarian following an episode where he was "transported back to pre-civilised times" and ate meat, and in Richard Marranca, in an issue of theVegetarian Journal, said that for Spock, likeKwai Chang Caine inKung Fu, "vegetarianism was something authentic and taken for granted; it was the right thing to do based on compassion and logic."[272]
In 1995,The Simpsons episode "Lisa the Vegetarian" aired. Before recording their lines for the episode, showrunner David Mirkin, who had recently stopped consuming meat, gave Linda and Paul McCartney "a container of his favorite turkey substitute," with both voicing characters in an episode which focused around vegetarianism.[269] Critic Alan Siegel said that before the episode vegetarians had been portrayed as "rarely as anything but one-dimensional hippies" but that this episode was different as it was "told from the point of view of the person becoming a vegetarian." He said that the episode was one of the "first times on television that vegetarians saw an honest depiction of themselves" and of people's reaction to their dietary choices. The idea for the episode was originally proposed byDavid X. Cohen and the McCartneys agreed on the condition that Lisa remain a vegetarian, with both satisfied with how the episode turned out.[269] In the episode, Lisa decides to stop eating meat after bonding with a lamb at a petting zoo. Her schoolmates and family members ridicule her for her beliefs, but with the help of Apu as well asPaul andLinda McCartney, she commits to vegetarianism.[273] The staff promised that she would remain a vegetarian,[274][275] resulting in one of the few permanent character changes made in the show.[276][277] In an August 2020 interview, McCartney said that he and is wife were worried that Lisa "would be a vegetarian for a week, then Homer would persuade her to eat a hot dog," but were assured by the producers that she would remain that way, and he was delighted that they "kept their word."[278]
In September 1998, theKing of the Hill episode "And They Call It Bobby Love" aired on FOX. In the episode, "Bobby has a relationship with a vegetarian named Marie. She later dumps him after he eats a steak in front of her."[268] In the March 2002South Park episode "Fun with Veal",Stan Marsh becomes a vegetarian after he learns that veal is made of baby cows, which Cartman makes fun of. The episode ends with the boys, including Stan, getting grounded, but not before going out with their parents for burgers, meaning that Stan is no longer a vegetarian. In the DVD commentary, the creators said they wanted to balance their message of not eating baby animals, by at the same time not advocating people abstain from meat consumption altogether.[270]
In the 1999 film,Notting Hill, Keziah, played by Emma Bernard is a vegetarian. In one scene, Keziah tells William "Will" Thacker (played byHugh Grant), that she is afruitarian.[291] She says she believes that "fruits and vegetables have feeling", meaning she opposes cooking them, only eating things that have "actually fallen off a tree or bush" and that are dead already, leading to what some describe as a negative depiction.[292]
In the 2000 film,But I'm A Cheerleader, before Megan, one of the film's protagonists, is sent to aconversion therapy camp, her parents and others claim she is a lesbian because she is a vegetarian.[293]Legally Blonde, a 2001 film, also featured a vegetarian—Elle Woods. When she introduces herself atHarvard Law School, she describes herself and her dog as "Gemini vegetarians".[294]
In the 2012 film,Life of Pi, Pi, played bySuraj Sharma, is a vegetarian based on his 3 religions: Hindu, Christian, and Muslim. And in the ship scene, one Taiwanese Sailor, played by Bo-Chieh Wang, is a vegetarian from his Buddhism religion to eat rice and the vegetarian gravy.
In the 2018 Hollywood blockbuster,Black Panther, M'Baku (voiced byWinston Duke), the Jabari tribe leader who lives in the mountains of Wakanda, declares to a White CIA agent named Everett Ross (voiced byMartin Freeman), "if you say one more word, I'll feed you to my children!" After Everett is shaken by these words, he jokes, saying he is kidding because all those in his tribe, including himself, are vegetarians.[295] Some praised this scene for challenging a stereotype of Black culture and the perception of what vegetarians look like.[296] Duke later said that some Black outlets cooked vegan meals for him, and said that the scene is "kind of teaching kids that eating vegetables is cool," which is something he is for.[297]
Vegetarian themes have also been noted in theTwilightnovel (2005–2008) andfilm franchise (2008–2012),The Road (2006) andThe Year of the Flood (2009).[267] In March 2020, scholar Nathan Poirer reviewedThinking Veganism in Literature and Culture: Towards a Vegan Theory, a book edited by Emelia Quinn and Benjamin Westwood, and he concluded that veganism could "infiltrate popular culture without being perceived as threatening," while noting others who contribute to the book examining vegan cinema that "challenges the normality of human supremacy by situating humans as potential prey," and stating that the essays outline ways veganism can be successful in popular culture.[298]
Reviewers said that the Netflix original film,Okja, which focused onfactory farming, talks aboutgenetically modified animals, and features aradical environmentalist group, had an impact on people's diets. Some said the film would convince audience members to become vegetarians, saying the film encourages people to eat less meat, comparing it to the impact of the documentariesFood, Inc.,Blackfish,The Cove, andCowspiracy, Jonathan Safran Foer's book,Eating Animals, the filmsCharlotte's Web,Babe, andChicken Run, and to the themes ofWatership Down. The film was also described as the "ultimate vegetarian film."[299][300] The film's co-writer,Jon Ronson, who is also vegetarian, said that while the film will "turn people vegetarian", this was not his intention nor that of director Bong Joon-ho. In an interview withThe Independent, Joon-ho said that he did not "expect the entire audience to convert to veganism after watching the film" and said that he does not have an issue withmeat consumption, but asked the audience to consider where their food comes from, and said if that happens, then the "level of meat consumption will gradually decline."[301][302] Joon-Ho told LA Times that in his view, thefood industry is "always trying to do is try to thicken the walls of the slaughterhouse so that nobody can peer inside it," with LA Times noting that Joon-Ho became vegan after visiting a slaugherhouse in South Korea, but ended the diet change after two months.[303]Paul Dano, who plays Jay in the film, also toldGQ that, while he is a meat-eater, it made him want to "be more conscientious consumer" and said it is easy to "forget that when we put our dollar down we are supporting something."[304]
^Fanny Kemble (Journal of a Residence on a Georgian Plantation in 1838–1839, 1839): "The sight and smell of raw meat are especially odious to me, and I have often thought that if I had had to be my own cook, I should inevitably become a vegetarian, probably, indeed, return entirely to my green and salad days."[15]
Another early use was bythe editor ofThe Healthian, a journal published byAlcott House, in April 1842: "To tell a man, who is in the stocks for a given fault, that he cannot be so confined for such an offence, is ridiculous enough; but not more so than to tell a healthy vegetarian that his diet is very uncongenial with the wants of his nature, and contrary to reason."[16]
^"The rule of vegetarianism was the fifth of a list of rules which Devadatta had proposed to the Buddha. Devadatta was the founder of the tapasa movement in Buddhism and his special rules involved ascetic and austere practices (forest-dwelling, wearing only rags, etc). The Buddha rejected all the proposed revisions of Devadatta, and it was in this context that he reiterated the tikoiparisuddha rule. (On this see the author's Western Buddhism and a Theravada heterodoxy, BSQ Tracts on Buddhism."[147]
^It was published in 2015 in the U.K. and inSouth Korea in 2007
^abKeevican, Michael (November 5, 2003)."What's in Your Cheese?". Vegetarian Resource Group.Archived from the original on March 18, 2018. RetrievedMarch 18, 2018.
^"Vegetarian". Online Etymology Dictionary, Douglas Harper Inc. 2019.Archived from the original on July 6, 2020. RetrievedApril 30, 2019.
^OED vol. 19, second edition (1989), p. 476;Webster's Third New International Dictionary p. 2537;The Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology,Oxford, 1966, p. 972;The Barnhart Dictionary of Etymology (1988), p. 1196; Colin Spencer,The Heretic's Feast. A History of Vegetarianism, London 1993, p. 252. TheOED writes that the word came into general use after the formation of the Vegetarian Society at Ramsgate in 1847, though it offers two examples of usage from 1839 and 1842:
1839: "If I had had to be my own cook, I should inevitably become a vegetarian." (F. A. Kemble,Jrnl. Residence on Georgian Plantation (1863) 251)
1842: "To tell a healthy vegetarian that his diet is very uncongenial with the wants of his nature." (Healthian, Apr. 34) The 1839 occurrence remains under discussion; the Oxford English Dictionary's 1839 source is in fact an 1863 publication:Fanny Kemble,Journal of a Residence on a Georgian Plantation 1838–1839. The original manuscript has not been located.
^Fanny Kemble,Journal of a Residence on a Georgian Plantation in 1838–1839, Harper and Brothers, New York, 1863,197–198.
^"FAQ: Definitions".IVU World Vegfest.International Vegetarian Union. March 8, 2013. Archived fromthe original on April 16, 2015. RetrievedMarch 18, 2018.The term 'Vegetarian' was first used around 1840 by the community closely associated with Alcott House School, near London, and they used it to refer exclusively to foods derived from plants—plus all the ethical values associated today with Veganism. [...] The word 'Vegetarian' was first formally used on September 30th of 1847 at Northwood Villa in Kent, England. The occasion is the inaugural meeting of TheVegetarian Society.
^Rod Preece,Sins of the Flesh: A History of Ethical Vegetarian Thought, Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 2008,12ISBN978-0-7748-1510-9
^Davis, John (June 1, 2011)."The Vegetus Myth".VegSource.Archived from the original on March 18, 2018. RetrievedMarch 18, 2018.Vegetarian can equally be seen as derived from the late Latin 'vegetabile' – meaning plant – as inRegnum Vegetabile / Plant Kingdom. Hence vegetable, vegetation – and vegetarian. Though others suggest that 'vegetable' itself is derived from 'vegetus'. But it's very unlikely that the originators went through all that either – they really did just join 'vegetable+arian', as the dictionaries have said all along.
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^Datta, P. T. Jyothi (September 4, 2001)."Health goes dotty with brown eggs & green milk".Hindu Business Line. New Delhi: Kasturi & Sons (published September 5, 2001).Archived from the original on March 19, 2018. RetrievedMarch 18, 2018.For discerning consumers, a recentHealth Ministry notification had made it mandatory for packed food containing animal parts contained in a box, to sport a brown dot prominently on its label.
^Lutterbach, Hubertus. "Der Fleischverzicht im Christentum",Saeculum 50/II (1999) p. 202.
^Mortimer, Ian (January 2010) [Originally published in Great Britain in 2008 byRandom House UK]."What to Eat and Drink: Noble Households"(Hardcover). In Sulkin, Will; Hensgen, Jörg (eds.).The Time Traveler's Guide to Medieval England (1st Touchstone hardcover ed.). New York, NY: Touchstone (Simon & Schuster). p. 140.ISBN978-1-4391-1289-2.Seals, porpoises, dolphins, barnacle geese, puffins, and beavers are all classed as fish as their lives begin in the sea or in a river. Hence they are eaten gleefully, even on nonmeat days.
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^abShorter Oxford English Dictionary (2002 and 2007) defines "vegetarian" (noun) as "A person who on principle abstains from animal food;esp. one who avoids meat but will eat dairy produce and eggs and sometimes also fish (cf. VEGANnoun)."
^"Meat".Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary.Merriam-Webster.Archived from the original on March 19, 2018. RetrievedMarch 18, 2018.Definition of meat [2a]: 2b;also: flesh of a mammal as opposed to fowl or fish
^"2003 Words of the Year".American Dialect Society. January 13, 2004.Archived from the original on March 19, 2018. RetrievedMarch 18, 2018.Most Useful: word or phrase which most fills a need for a new word –Winnerflexitarian: noun, a vegetarian who occasionally eats meat. 31–41
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^Viguiliouk, Effie; Kendall, Cyril WC.; Kahleová, Hana; et al. (2019). "Effect of vegetarian dietary patterns on cardiometabolic risk factors in diabetes: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials".Clinical Nutrition.38 (3):1133–1145.doi:10.1016/j.clnu.2018.05.032.ISSN0261-5614.PMID29960809.S2CID49649078.
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^abcd"Vitamin B12". Micronutrient Information Center, Linus Pauling Institute, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR. June 4, 2015.Archived from the original on November 17, 2021. RetrievedApril 30, 2019.
^abInstitute of Medicine (US) Committee to Review Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin D and Calcium (2011). Ross AC, Taylor CL, Yaktine AL, et al. (eds.).Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium and Vitamin D (Report). Vol. 2, Overview of Calcium. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.Archived from the original on September 4, 2015. RetrievedApril 29, 2014.
^Bowerman, Susan (March 31, 2008)."If mushrooms see the light".Los Angeles Times.Archived from the original on September 4, 2011. RetrievedMarch 25, 2010.
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^Searchinger, T.D., Wirsenius, S., Beringer, T. et al. Assessing the efficiency of changes in land use for mitigating climate change. Nature 564, 249–253 (2018).doi:10.1038/s41586-018-0757-z
^Kieschnick, John (2005), Sterckx, Roel (ed.), "Buddhist Vegetarianism in China",Of Tripod and Palate: Food, Politics, and Religion in Traditional China, New York: Palgrave Macmillan US, pp. 186–212,doi:10.1057/9781403979278_10,ISBN978-1-4039-7927-8
^Ho-Pham, LT; Nguyen, PLT; Le, TTT; Doan, TAT; Tran, NT; Le, TA; Nguyen, TV (April 7, 2009). "Veganism, bone mineral density, and body composition: a study in Buddhist nuns".Osteoporosis International.20 (12):2087–2093.doi:10.1007/s00198-009-0916-z.ISSN1433-2965.PMID19350341.S2CID20305849.
^"History of Vegetarianism – Early Ideas". The Vegetarian Society. Archived fromthe original on July 16, 2012. RetrievedJuly 8, 2008.; Gregory, James (2007)Of Victorians and Vegetarians. London: I. B. Tauris pp. 30–35.
^I.J. Singh,Sikhs and Sikhism, Manohar, DelhiISBN978-81-7304-058-0: "Throughout Sikh history, there have been movements or subsects of Sikhism which have espoused vegetarianism. I think there is no basis for such dogma or practice in Sikhism."
^Surindar Singh Kohli,Guru Granth Sahib, An Analytical Study, Singh Bros. AmritsarISBN81-7205-060-7: "The ideas of devotion and service in Vaishnavism have been accepted by Adi Granth, but the insistence of Vaishnavas on vegetarian diet has been rejected."
^abGopal Singh,History of the Sikh People, World Sikh Univ. Press, Delhi,ISBN978-81-7023-139-4: "Nowadays in the Community Kitchen attached to the Sikh temples, and called the Guru's Kitchen (orGuru-ka-langar), meat dishes are not served at all. Maybe it is on account of its being, perhaps, expensive or not easy to keep for long. Or perhaps the Vaishnava tradition is too strong to be shaken off."
^Gyani Sher Singh,Philosophy of Sikhism, Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee, Amritsar: "As a true Vaisnavite, Kabir remained a strict vegetarian. Kabir, far from defying Brahmanical tradition as to the eating of meat, would not permit so much as the plucking of a flower (G.G.S. p. 479), whereas Nanak deemed all such scruples to be superstitions."
^Martinelli, Dario; Berkmanienė, Aušra (2018). "The Politics and the Demographics of Veganism: Notes for a Critical Analysis".International Journal for the Semiotics of Law.31 (3):501–530.doi:10.1007/s11196-018-9543-3.S2CID149235953.
^Woolley, Kaitlin; Fishbach, Ayelet; Wang, Ronghan (Michelle) (2020). "Food restriction and the experience of social isolation".Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.119 (3):657–671.doi:10.1037/pspi0000223.PMID31724417.S2CID208018174.
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