Valentine's Day, also calledSaint Valentine's Day or theFeast of Saint Valentine,[1] is celebrated annually on February 14.[2] It originated as a Christianfeast day honoring amartyr namedValentine, and through later folk traditions it has also become a significant cultural, religious and commercial celebration ofromance and love in many regions of the world.[3][4]
There are a number of martyrdom stories associated with various Saint Valentines connected to February 14,[5] including an account of the imprisonment of SaintValentine of Rome for ministering to Christianspersecuted under the Roman Empire in the third century.[6][7] According to an early tradition, Saint Valentine restored sight to the blind daughter of his jailer.[8] Numerous later additions to the legend have better related it to the theme of love: tradition maintains that Saint Valentine performed weddings for Christian soldiers who were forbidden to marry by the Roman emperor;[7] an 18th-century embellishment to the legend claims he wrote the jailer's daughter a letter signed "Your Valentine" as a farewell before his execution.[9]
The 8th-centuryGelasian Sacramentary recorded the celebration of the Feast of Saint Valentine on February 14.[10][11] The day became associated with romantic love in the 14th and 15th centuries, when notions ofcourtly love flourished, apparently by association with the "lovebirds" of early spring. In 18th-century England, it grew into an occasion for couples to express their love for each other by presenting flowers, offering confectionery, and sendinggreeting cards (known as "valentines"). Valentine's Day symbols that are used today include theheart-shaped outline, doves, and the figure of the wingedCupid. In the 19th century, handmade cards gave way to mass-produced greetings.[12] In Italy,Saint Valentine's keys are given to lovers "as a romantic symbol and an invitation to unlock the giver's heart", as well as to children to ward offepilepsy (called Saint Valentine's Malady).[13]
It is a day of commemoration in the Anglican Communion[14] and the Lutheran Church.[15] Many parts of the Eastern Orthodox Church celebrate Saint Valentine's Day on July 6 in honor of Roman presbyter Saint Valentine, and on July 30 in honor ofHieromartyr Valentine, the Bishop of Interamna (modernTerni).[16]
Numerous early Christian martyrs were namedValentine.[17] The Valentines honored on February 14 are Valentine of Rome (Valentinus presb. m. Romae) and Valentine of Terni (Valentinus ep. Interamnensis m. Romae).[18] Valentine ofRome was a priest in Rome who was martyred in 269 and was buried on theVia Flaminia. The relics of Saint Valentine were kept in theChurch and Catacombs of San Valentino in Rome, which "remained an important pilgrim site throughout the Middle Ages until the relics of Saint Valentine were transferred to the church ofSanta Prassede during the pontificate ofNicholas IV [1288–1292]".[19][20] The flower-crowned skull of Saint Valentine is exhibited in the Basilica ofSanta Maria in Cosmedin, Rome. Other relics are found atWhitefriar Street Carmelite Church in Dublin, Ireland.[21]
Valentine of Terni became bishop ofInteramna (nowTerni, in central Italy) and is said to have been martyred during the persecution under EmperorAurelian in 273. He is buried on the Via Flaminia, but in a different location from Valentine of Rome. His relics are at the Basilica of Saint Valentine in Terni (Basilica di San Valentino). Professor Jack B. Oruch of the University of Kansas notes that "abstracts of the acts of the two saints were in nearly every church and monastery of Europe."[22] A relic claimed to be Saint Valentine of Terni's head was preserved in the abbey ofNew Minster, Winchester, and venerated.[23]
TheCatholic Encyclopedia speaks of a third saint named Valentine who was mentioned in earlymartyrologies under date of February 14. He was martyred in Africa with a number of companions, but nothing more is known about him.[24]
In theEastern Orthodox Church, Saint Valentine is recognized onJuly 6, on whichSaint Valentine, the Roman presbyter, is honoured; in addition, the Eastern Orthodox Church observes the feast of Hieromartyr Valentine, Bishop of Interamna, onJuly 30.[27][28][29]
J.C. Cooper, inThe Dictionary of Christianity, writes that Saint Valentine was "a priest of Rome who was imprisoned for succouring persecuted Christians."[30] Contemporary records of Saint Valentine were most probably destroyed during thisDiocletianic Persecution in the early 4th century.[31] In the 5th or 6th century, a work calledPassio Marii et Marthae published a story of martyrdom for Saint Valentine of Rome, perhaps by borrowing tortures that happened to other saints, as was usual in the literature of that period.[31][32]
The same events are found inBede's Martyrology, which was compiled in the 8th century.[31][32] It states that Saint Valentine was persecuted as a Christian and interrogated byRoman EmperorClaudius II in person. Claudius was impressed by Valentine and had a discussion with him, attempting to get him to convert to Romanpaganism in order to save his life. Valentine refused and tried to convert Claudius to Christianity instead. Because of this, he was executed. Before his execution, he is reported to have performed a miracle by healing Julia, the blind daughter of his jailer Asterius. The jailer's daughter and his forty-six memberhousehold, family members and servants, came to believe inJesus and werebaptized.[33][31]
A laterPassio repeated the legend, adding thatPope Julius I built a church over his sepulchre (it is a confusion with a 4th-century tribune called Valentino, who donated land to build a church at a time when Julius was a Pope).[32] The legend was picked up as fact by later martyrologies, starting withBede's martyrology in the 8th century.[32] It was repeated in the 13th century, inThe Golden Legend.[34]
There is an additional embellishment toThe Golden Legend, which according to Henry Ansgar Kelly, was added in the 18th century and widely repeated.[35] On the evening before Valentine was to beexecuted, he is supposed to have written the first "valentine" card himself, addressed to the daughter of his jailer Asterius, who was no longer blind, signing as "Your Valentine."[35] The expression "From your Valentine" was later adopted by modern Valentine letters.[36] This legend has been published by bothAmerican Greetings andThe History Channel.[37]
John Foxe, a 16th-century English historian, and theOrder of Carmelites state that Saint Valentine was buried in theChurch of Saint Praxedes in Rome, located near the cemetery ofSaint Hippolytus. This order says that according to legend, "Julia herself planted a pink-blossomed almond tree near his grave. Today, the almond tree remains a symbol of abiding love and friendship."[38][39]
Another embellishment suggests that Saint Valentine performed clandestineChristian weddings for soldiers who were forbidden to marry.[40] The Roman Emperor Claudius II supposedly forbade this in order to grow his army, believing that married men did not make for good soldiers.[40][41] However, George Monger writes that this marriage ban was never issued and that Claudius II told his soldiers to take two or three women for themselves after his victory over theGoths.[42]
According to legend, in order "to remind these men of their vows and God's love, Saint Valentine is said to have cut hearts from parchment", giving them to these soldiers andpersecuted Christians, a possible origin of the widespread use of hearts on Saint Valentine's Day.[43]
Saint Valentine supposedly wore a purpleamethyst ring, customarily worn on the hands of Christianbishops with an image ofCupid engraved in it, a recognizable symbol associated with love that was legal under the Roman Empire;[41][44] Roman soldiers would recognize the ring and ask him to perform marriage for them.[41] Probably due to the association with Saint Valentine, amethyst has become thebirthstone of February, which is thought to attract love.[45]
Folk traditions
While the European folk traditions connected with Saint Valentine and Saint Valentine's Day have become marginalized by modern customs connecting the day withromantic love, there are still some connections with the advent ofspring.
While the custom of sending cards, flowers, chocolates and other gifts originated in the UK, Valentine's Day still remains connected with various regional customs in England. InNorfolk, a character called "Jack" Valentine knocks on the rear door of houses, leaving sweets and presents for children. Although he was leaving treats, many children were scared of this mystical person.[46][47]
InSlovenia, Saint Valentine orZdravko was one of the saints of spring, the saint of good health and the patron ofbeekeepers and pilgrims.[48]A proverb says that "Saint Valentine brings the keys of roots". Plants and flowers start to grow on this day. It has been celebrated as the day when the first work in the vineyards and in the fields commences. It is also said that birds propose to each other or marry on that day. Another proverb says"Valentin – prvi spomladin" ('Valentine – the first spring saint'), as in some places (especiallyWhite Carniola), Saint Valentine marks the beginning of spring.[49] Valentine's Day has only recently been celebrated as the day of love. The day of love was traditionally March 12,Saint Gregory's day, or February 22,Saint Vincent's Day. The patron of love wasSaint Anthony, whose day has been celebrated on June 13.[48]
Lupercalia was a festival local to the city of Rome. The more general Festival ofJuno Februa, meaning "Juno the purifier" or "the chaste Juno", was celebrated on February 13–14. Although the PopeGelasius I (492–496) article in the Catholic Encyclopedia says that he abolished Lupercalia, theologian and Methodist ministerBruce Forbes wrote that "no evidence" has been demonstrated to link Saint Valentine's Day and the rites of the ancient Roman purification festival ofLupercalia, despite claims by many authors to the contrary.[notes 2][23][50][51]
Some researchers have theorized that Gelasius I replaced Lupercalia with the celebration of thePurification of the Blessed Virgin Mary and claim a connection to the 14th century's connotations of romantic love, but there is no historical indication that he ever intended such a thing.[notes 3][51][52] Also, the dates do not fit because at the time of Gelasius I, the feast was only celebrated in Jerusalem, and it was on February 14 only because Jerusalem placed the Nativity of Jesus (Christmas) on January 6.[notes 4] Although it was called "Purification of the Blessed Virgin Mary", it also dealt with the presentation of Jesus at the temple.[53] Jerusalem's Purification of the Blessed Virgin Mary on February 14 became thePresentation of Jesus at the Temple on February 2 as it was introduced to Rome and other places in the sixth century, after Gelasius I's time.[53]
While sometimes repeated uncritically by modern sources that men or boys drew names of women or girls from a jar to couple for the duration of Lupercalia, there is no ancient evidence for any kind of lottery or sortition scheme pairing couples for sex. The first descriptions of this fictitious lottery appeared in the 15th century in relation to Valentine's Day, with a connection to the Lupercalia first asserted in 18th century antiquarian works, such as those byAlban Butler (The Lives of the Fathers, Martyrs, and Other Principal Saints, 1756–1759) andFrancis Douce.[54] These modern sources claimed that the fictional Lupercalia was the source of the practice of sending valentines.
The practice of sending valentines originated in the Middle Ages, with no link to Lupercalia, with boys drawing the names of girls at random. This custom was combated by priests, for example byFrances de Sales around 1600, apparently by replacing it with a religious custom of girls drawing the names of apostles from thealtar. However, this religious custom is recorded as early as the 13th century in the life of SaintElizabeth of Hungary, so it could have a different origin.[23]
"For this was on seynt Valentynes day Whan every foul cometh there to chese his make Of every kynde that men thynke may And that so huge a noyse gan they make That erthe, and eyr, and tre, and every lake So ful was, that unethe was there space For me to stonde, so ful was al the place."[56][57]
In modern English:
"For this was on Saint Valentine's Day When every fowl comes there to choose his match Of every kind that men may think of And that so huge a noise they began to make That earth and air and tree and every lake Was so full, that not easily was there space For me to stand—so full was all the place."
Readers have uncritically assumed that Chaucer was referring to February 14 as Saint Valentine's Day. Henry Ansgar Kelly has observed that Chaucer might have had in mind the feast day of St. Valentine of Genoa, an earlybishop of Genoa who died around AD 307; it was probably celebrated on May 3.[55][58][59] A treaty providing for Richard II and Anne's marriage, the subject of the poem, was signed on May 2, 1381.[60]
Jack B. Oruch notes thatthe date on which spring begins has changed since Chaucer's time because of theprecession of the equinoxes and the introduction of the more accurateGregorian calendar only in 1582. On theJulian calendar in use in Chaucer's time, February 14 would have fallen on the date now called February 23, a time when some birds have started mating and nesting in England.[31]
Chaucer'sParliament of Fowls refers to a supposedly established tradition, but there is no record of such a tradition before Chaucer. The speculative derivation of sentimental customs from the distant past began with 18th-centuryantiquaries, notablyAlban Butler, the author ofButler's Lives of Saints, and have been perpetuated even by respectable modern scholars. Most notably, "the idea that Valentine's Day customs perpetuated those of the RomanLupercalia has been accepted uncritically and repeated, in various forms, up to the present".[23][61]
Three other authors who made poems aboutbirds mating on St. Valentine's Day around the same years:Otton de Grandson from Savoy,John Gower from England, and a knight called Pardo from Valencia. Chaucer most probably predated all of them; but due to the difficulty of dating medieval works, it is not possible to ascertain which of the four may have influenced the others.[62]
Court of love
The earliest description of February 14 as an annual celebration of love appears in theCharter of the Court of Love. The charter, allegedly issued byCharles VI of France atMantes-la-Jolie in 1400, describes lavish festivities to be attended by several members of the royal court, including a feast, amorous song and poetry competitions,jousting and dancing.[63] Amid these festivities, the attending ladies would hear and rule on disputes from lovers.[64] No other record of the court exists, and none of those named in the charter were present at Mantes except Charles's queen,Isabeau of Bavaria, who may well have imagined it all while waiting out a plague.[63]
The earliest surviving valentines in English appear to be those in thePaston Letters, written in 1477 byMargery Brews to her future husband John Paston "my right well-beloved Valentine".[67]
"To-morrow is Saint Valentine's day, All in the morning betime, And I a maid at your window, To be your Valentine. Then up he rose, and donn'd his clothes, And dupp'd the chamber-door; Let in the maid, that out a maid Never departed more."
All the Ayre is thy Diocese And all the chirping Queristers And other birds ar thy parishioners Thou marryest every yeare The Lyrick Lark, and the graue whispering Doue, The Sparrow that neglects his life for loue, The houshold bird with the redd stomacher Thou makst the Blackbird speede as soone, As doth the Goldfinch, or the Halcyon The Husband Cock lookes out and soone is spedd And meets his wife, which brings her feather-bed. This day more cheerfully than ever shine
This day which might inflame thy selfe old Valentine."
— John Donne,Epithalamion Vpon Frederick Count Palatine and the Lady Elizabeth marryed on St. Valentines day
"She bath'd with roses red, and violets blew, And all the sweetest flowres [sic], that in the forrest grew."[68]
The modern cliché Valentine's Day poem can be found inGammer Gurton's Garland (1784), a collection of English nursery rhymes published in London byJoseph Johnson:
"The rose is red, the violet's blue,
The honey's sweet, and so are you. Thou art my love and I am thine; I drew thee to my Valentine: The lot was cast and then I drew,
An English Victorian era Valentine card located in theMuseum of London
In 1797, a British publisher issuedThe Young Man's Valentine Writer, which contained scores of suggested sentimentalverses for the young lover unable to compose his own. Printers had already begun producing a limited number of cards with verses and sketches, called "mechanical valentines". Paper Valentines became so popular in England in the early 19th century that they were assembled in factories. Fancy Valentines were made with real lace and ribbons, with paper lace introduced in the mid-19th century.[71] In 1835, 60,000 Valentine cards were sent by post in the United Kingdom, despite postage being expensive.[72]
Areduction in postal rates followingSir Rowland Hill's postal reforms with the 1840 invention of the postage stamp (Penny Black) saw the number of Valentines posted increase, with 400,000 sent just one year after its introduction, and ushered in the less personal but easier practice of mailing Valentines.[73] That made it possible for the first time to exchange cards anonymously, which is taken as the reason for the sudden appearance of racy verse in an era otherwise prudishlyVictorian.[74] Production increased, "Cupid's Manufactory" asCharles Dickens termed it, with over 3,000 women employed in manufacturing.[73] TheLaura Seddon Greeting Card Collection atManchester Metropolitan University gathers 450 Valentine's Day cards dating from early 19th century Britain, printed by the major publishers of the day.[75] The collection appears in Seddon's bookVictorian Valentines (1996).[76]
Flowers, such as red roses (pictured), are often sent on Valentine's Day.
In the United States, the first mass-produced Valentines of embossed paper lace were produced and sold shortly after 1847 byEsther Howland (1828–1904) ofWorcester, Massachusetts.[77][78] Her father operated a large book and stationery store, but Howland took her inspiration from an English Valentine she had received from a business associate of her father.[79][80] Intrigued with the idea of making similar Valentines, Howland began her business by importing paper lace and floral decorations from England.[80][81]
A writer inGraham's American Monthly observed in 1849, "Saint Valentine's Day ... is becoming, nay it has become, a national holyday."[82] The English practice of sending Valentine's cards was established enough to feature as a plot device inElizabeth Gaskell'sMr. Harrison's Confessions (1851): "I burst in with my explanations: 'The valentine I know nothing about.' 'It is in your handwriting', said he coldly."[83] Since 2001, the Greeting Card Association has been giving an annual "Esther Howland Award for a Greeting Card Visionary".[78]
Since the 19th century, handmade cards have given way to mass-producedgreeting cards.[12] In the UK, just under half of the population spend money on their Valentines, and around £1.9 billion was spent in 2015 on cards, flowers, chocolates, and other gifts.[84] The mid-19th century Valentine's Day trade was a harbinger of further commercialized holidays in the U.S. to follow.[85]
A gift box of chocolates, which is a common gift for Valentine's Day
In 1868, the British chocolate companyCadbury created Fancy Boxes – a decorated box of chocolates – in the shape of a heart for Valentine's Day.[86][87] Boxes of filled chocolates quickly became associated with the holiday.[86] In the second half of the 20th century, the practice of exchanging cards was extended to all manner of gifts, such as givingjewelry.
The U.S. Greeting Card Association estimates that approximately 190 million valentines are sent each year in the US. Half of those valentines are given to family members other than husband or wife, usually to children. When the valentine-exchange cards made in school activities are included the figure goes up to 1 billion, and teachers become the people receiving the most valentines.[77]
The increase in use of the Internet around the turn of the millennium is creating new traditions. Every year, millions of people use digital means of creating and sending Valentine's Day greeting messages such ase-cards, love coupons and printable greeting cards. Valentine's Day is considered by some to be aHallmark holiday due to its commercialization.[88]
Valentine's Day customs—sending greeting cards (known as "valentines"), offering confectionery and presenting flowers—developed in early modern England and spread throughout theEnglish-speaking world in the 19th century. In the later 20th and early 21st centuries, these customs spread to other countries, like those ofHalloween, and aspects ofChristmas (such asSanta Claus).
In mostLatin American countries—for example,Costa Rica,[91] Mexico,[92] and theU.S.territory ofPuerto Rico—Saint Valentine's Day is known asDía de los Enamorados ('Lovers' Day')[93] or asDía del Amor y la Amistad ('Love and Friendship Day'). It is also common to see people perform "acts of appreciation" for their friends.[94]
InGuatemala it is known asDía del Cariño ('Affection Day').[95] Some countries, in particular theDominican Republic andEl Salvador,[96] have a tradition calledAmigo secreto ('secret friend'), which is a game similar to the Christmas tradition ofSecret Santa.[94]
InBrazil, theDia dos Namorados ('Lovers' Day', or 'Boyfriends/Girlfriends Day') is celebrated on June 12, probably because that is the day beforeSaint Anthony's day—a saint recognized for blessing young couples with happy and prosperous marriages—when traditionally many single women perform popular rituals calledsimpatias in order to find a good husband or boyfriend.[97] Couples exchange gifts, chocolates, cards, and flower bouquets. The February 14 Valentine's Day is not celebrated at all because it is usually too close toBrazilian Carnival, which can fall anywhere from early February to early March and lasts almost a week.[98]
Colombia
Colombia celebratesDía del amor y la amistad ('Love and Friendship Day') on the third Saturday in September instead.[99]Amigo Secreto is also popular there.[100]
United States
Conversation hearts, candies with messages on them, are strongly associated with Valentine's Day in the United States.African American Valentine's school dance, Richmond, Virginia 1956
On the United States mainland, about 190 million Valentine's Day cards are sent each year, not including the hundreds of millions of cards school children exchange.[101]
Valentine's Day is a major source of economic activity, with totalexpenditure topping $18.2 billion in 2017, or over $136 per person.[102] This was an increase from $108 per person in 2010.[103] Purchases include jewellery, flowers, chocolates, candy, and greeting cards.[102] Roses, especially red roses, are the most popular flower.[102] In the US, roses are generally imported via refrigerated airplanes from Colombia and Ecuador.[104] The most popular locally grown and seasonally compatible flowers are early springtulips.[104]
In 2019, a survey by theNational Retail Federation found that over the previous decade, the percentage of people who celebrate Valentine's Day had declined steadily. From their survey results, they found three primary reasons: over-commercialization of the holiday, not having a spouse or significant other to celebrate it with, and not being interested in celebrating it.[105]
Asia
Afghanistan
In pre-Taliban years, Koch-e-Gul-Faroushi ('Flower Street') in downtownKabul used to be adorned with innovative flower arrangements, to attract the Valentine's Day-celebrating youth.[106] In the Afghantradition, love is often expressed throughpoetry. A new generation of budding poets such as Ramin Mazhar and Mahtab Sahel express themselves through poetry, using Valentine's Day as a theme to voice concerns about the erosion of freedoms. In their political commentary, they defy fear by saying "I kiss you amid the Taliban".[107][108]
Valentine's Day was first celebrated in Bangladesh byShafik Rehman, a journalist and editor of the newspaperJaijaidin, in 1993. He was acquainted withWestern culture from studying inLondon.[109] He highlighted Valentine's Day to the Bangladeshi people throughJaijaidin. Rehman is called the "father of Valentine's Day in Bangladesh".[110] On this day, people in various types of relationship, including lovers, friends, husbands and wives, mothers and children, students and teachers, express their love for each other with flowers, chocolates, cards and other gifts. On this day, various parks and recreation centers of the country are full of people of love.[111] No public holiday, however, is declared on this day in Bangladesh.
Some in Bangladesh feel that celebrating this day is not acceptable from a cultural andIslamic point of view.[112] Before the celebration of Valentine's Day, February 14 was celebrated as the anti-authoritarian day in Bangladesh. However, that day has been disregarded by people to celebrate Valentine's Day.[113][114][115]
In ancient India, there was a tradition of adoringKamadeva, the lord of love – exemplified by the erotic carvings in theKhajuraho Group of Monuments and by the writing of theKamasutra.[118] This tradition was lost around theMiddle Ages, when Kamadeva was no longer celebrated, and public displays of sexual affection became frowned upon.[118] This repression of public affections began to loosen in the 1990s.[119]
Valentine's Day celebrations did not catch on in India until around 1992. It was spread due to the programs in commercial TV channels, such asMTV, dedicated radio programs, and love letter competitions, in addition to an economical liberalization that allowed the explosion of the valentine card industry.[118][120] The celebration has caused a sharp change on how people have been displaying their affection in public since the Middle Ages.[118]
On a 2018 online survey, it was found that 68% of the respondents did not wish to celebrate Valentine's Day.[121] It can be also observed that different religious groups, including Hindu,[122] Muslim[123] and Christian people of India do not support Valentine's Day.
In modern times, Hindu and Islamic[124] traditionalists have considered the holiday to be cultural contamination from the West, a result of globalization in India.[118][120]Shiv Sena and theSangh Parivar have asked their followers to shun the holiday and the "public admission of love" because of them being "alien to Indian culture".[125] Although these protests are organized by political elites, the protesters themselves are middle-class Hindu men who fear that the globalization will destroy the traditions in their society:arranged marriages,Hindu joint families,full-time mothers, etc.[120][124] Despite these obstacles, Valentine's Day is becoming increasingly popular in India.[126]
Valentine's Day has been strongly criticized from apostcolonial perspective by intellectuals from the Indian left. The holiday is regarded as a front for "Western imperialism", "neocolonialism", and "the exploitation of working classes throughcommercialism bymultinational corporations".[127] It is claimed that as a result of Valentine's Day, theworking classes andrural poor become more disconnected socially, politically, and geographically from the hegemoniccapitalist power structure. They also criticize mainstream media attacks on Indians opposed to Valentine's Day as a form ofdemonization that is designed and derived to further the Valentine's Day agenda.[128][129]Right wingHindu nationalists are also hostile. In February 2012,Subash Chouhan of theBajrang Dal warned couples: "They cannot kiss or hug in public places. Our activists will beat them up".[130]He said "We are not against love, but we criticize vulgar exhibition of love at public places".[131]
According toThe Hindu in February 2023, theAnimal Welfare Board of India appealed to Indians to celebrate February 14 as "Cow Hug Day" for "emotional richness" and to increase "individual and collective happiness." The newspaper referenced thesacredness of cows as being equivalent to one's mother in Indian culture, and further rued: "..Vedic traditions are almost on the verge of extinction due to the progress ofWestern culture over time. The dazzle of Western civilization has made our physical culture and heritage almost forgotten".[132]
According to Rhea Mogul of CNN, a 2017 photo series Indian women sporting cow masks by activist Sujatro Ghosh portrays a society in which cows are more valued than women. Mogul says authorities had advanced the idea to rebrand Valentine's Day as "Cow Hug Day". Mogul says, "But the move seems to have failed and later retracted after it prompted a rush of internet memes, cartoons and jokes by TV hosts about the importance of consent." Media outlets like NDTV mocked the government's plan by underlining the importance of the consent of cows before hugging them. Mogul says critics saycow-worship has been politically manipulated by cow vigilante motivated by conservativeBJP's majoritarian politics to harass minorities with allegations of disrespect of cows orcow slaughter.[133]
Part of a celebration of Valentine's Day inTehran.
The history of Valentine's Day inIran dates back to theQajar era of the latter half of the 19th century.Naser al-Din Shah Qajar did not take his wife with him during his trip to Europe and he sent her a greeting card from distance on Valentine's Day. This greeting card is available in Iranian museums.[134]
Since the mid-2000s, Valentine's Day has become increasingly popular in Iran, especially among young people. However, it has also been the subject of heavy criticism from Iranian conservatives, who see it as part of the spread of "decadent" Western culture.[135] Since 2011, authorities have attempted to discourage celebrations and impose restrictions on the sale and production of Valentine's Day-related goods, although the holiday remains popular as of 2018.[136] Additionally, there have been efforts to revive the ancient Persian festival ofSepandārmazgān, which takes place around the same time, to replace Valentine's Day. However, as of 2016, this has also been largely unsuccessful.[137]
Israel
InIsrael, the Jewish tradition ofTu B'Av has been revived and transformed into the Jewish equivalent of Valentine's Day. It is celebrated on the 15th day of the month ofAv (usually in late August). In ancient times girls would wear white dresses and dance in the vineyards, where the boys would be waiting for them (Mishna Taanith, end of Chapter 4). Today, Tu B'Av is celebrated as a second holiday of love by secular people (along with Valentine's Day), and it shares many of the customs associated with Saint Valentine's Day in Western societies. In modern Israeli culture Tu B'Av is a popular day to proclaim love, propose marriage, and give gifts like cards or flowers.[138]
Japan
In Japan,Morozoff Ltd. introduced the holiday for the first time in 1936, when it ran an advertisement aimed at foreigners. Later, in 1953, it began promoting the giving of heart-shaped chocolates; other Japanese confectionery companies followed suit thereafter. In 1958, theIsetandepartment store ran a "Valentine sale". Further campaigns during the 1960s popularized the custom.[139][140]
Valentine's chocolates in Japan
The custom that only women give chocolates to men may have originated from the translation error of a chocolate-company executive during the initial campaigns.[141] In particular,office ladies give chocolate to their co-workers. Unlike western countries, gifts such as greeting cards,[141] candies,flowers, ordinner dates[142] are uncommon, and most of the gifts-related activity is about giving the right amount of chocolate to each person.[141] Japanese chocolate companies make half their annual sales during this time of the year.[141]
Many women feel obliged to give chocolates to all male co-workers, except when the day falls on a Sunday, a holiday. This is known asgiri-choko (義理チョコ), fromgiri ('obligation') andchoko, ('chocolate'), with unpopular co-workers receiving only "ultra-obligatory" (超義理チョコ,chō-giri choko) cheap chocolate. This contrasts withhonmei-choko (本命チョコ, lit. "true feeling chocolate"), chocolate given to a loved one. Friends, especially girls, may exchange chocolate referred to astomo-choko (友チョコ, from'tomo' meaning "friend").[143]
In the 1980s, the Japanese National Confectionery Industry Association launched a successful campaign to make March 14 a "reply day", on which men are expected to return the favour to those who gave them chocolates on Valentine's Day, calling itWhite Day for the color of the chocolates being offered. A previous failed attempt to popularize this celebration had been done by amarshmallow manufacturer who wanted men to return marshmallows to women.[139][140]
In Japan, the romantic "date night" associated with Valentine's Day is celebrated onChristmas Eve.[144]
Malaysia
Islamic officials inWest Malaysia warned Muslims against celebrating Valentine's Day, linking it with vice activities. Deputy Prime MinisterMuhyiddin Yassin said the celebration of romantic love was "not suitable" for Muslims. Wan Mohamad Sheikh Abdul Aziz, head of the Malaysian Islamic Development Department (Jakim), which oversees the country's Islamic policies said that afatwa (ruling) issued by the country's top clerics in 2005 noted that the day "is associated with elements of Christianity," and "we just cannot get involved with other religions' worshippingrituals." Jakim officials planned to carry out a nationwide campaign called "Awas Jerat Valentine's Day" ("Mind the Valentine's Day Trap"), aimed at preventing Muslims from celebrating the day on February 14, 2011. Activities included conducting raids in hotels to stop young couples from having unlawful sex and distributing leaflets to Muslim university students warning them against the day.[145][146]
On Valentine's Day 2011, West Malaysian religious authorities arrested more than 100 Muslim couples concerning the celebration ban. Some of them would be charged in the Shariah Court for defying the department's ban against the celebration of Valentine's Day.[147]
InEast Malaysia, the celebrations are much more tolerated among young Muslim couples, although some Islamic officials and Muslim activists from the West side have told younger generations to refrain from such celebration by organising da'wah and tried to spread their ban into the East.[148][149] In both the states ofSabah andSarawak, the celebration is usually common with flowers.[150][151][152]
The concept of Valentine's Day was introduced into Pakistan during the late 1990s with special TV and radio programs. TheJamaat-e-Islami political party has called for the banning of Valentine's Day celebration.[126] Despite this, the celebration is becoming popular among urban youth and the florists expect to sell a great number of flowers, especially red roses. The case is the same with card publishers.[153]
In 2016, the local governing body ofPeshwar officially banned the celebration of Valentine's Day in the city. The ban was also implemented in other cities such asKohat by the local governments.[154]
In 2017, theIslamabad High Court banned Valentine's Day celebrations in public places in Pakistan.[155] More than 80% ofDawn readers polled on its website agreed with this decision.[112]
In thePhilippines, Valentine's Day is calledAraw ng mga Puso in much the same manner as in the West. It is usually marked by a steep increase in the price of flowers, particularly red roses.[158] It is the most popular day for weddings,[159] with some localities offering mass ceremonies for no charge.[160]
Saudi Arabia
InSaudi Arabia, in 2002 and 2008,religious police banned the sale of all Valentine's Day items, telling shop workers to remove any red items, because the day is considered a Christian holiday.[161][162] This ban has created ablack market forroses andwrapping paper.[162][163] In 2012, the religious police arrested more than 140 Muslims for celebrating the holiday, and confiscated all red roses from flower shops.[164] Muslims are not allowed to celebrate the holiday, and non-Muslims can celebrate only behind closed doors.[165]
"Saudi cleric Sheikh Muhammad Al-'Arifi said on Valentine's Day Eve that celebrating this holiday constitutesbid'a – a forbidden innovation and deviation from religious law and custom – and mimicry of the West."[166][167]
However, in 2017 and 2018, after afatwa was widely circulated, the religious police did not prevent Muslims from celebrating the day.[168] In 2018, Sheikh Ahmed Qasim Al-Ghamdi, a Saudi cleric and former president of theCommittee for the Promotion of Virtue and Prevention of Vice, said that Valentine's Day is not haram and is compatible with Islamic values.[169][170]
Singapore
According to findings,Singaporeans are among the biggest spenders on Valentine's Day, with 60% of Singaporeans indicating that they would spend between $100 and $500 during the season leading up to the holiday.[90]
South Korea
InSouth Korea, women give chocolate to men on February 14, and men give non-chocolate candy to women on March 14 (White Day). On April 14 (Black Day), those who did not receive anything on February or March 14 go to a Chinese-Korean restaurant to eat black noodles (짜장면;jajangmyeon) and lament their "single life".[142] Koreans also celebratePepero Day on November 11, when young couples give each other pepero cookies. The date "11/11" is intended to resemble the long shape of the cookie. The 14th of every month marks a love-related day in Korea, although most of them are obscure. From January to December, the sequence of these days is Candle Day, Valentine's Day, White Day,Black Day, Rose Day, Kiss Day, Silver Day, Green Day, Music Day, Wine Day, Movie Day, and Hug Day.[171] Korean women give a much higher amount of chocolate than Japanese women.[142]
InTaiwan, traditionalQixi Festival, Valentine's Day and White Day are all celebrated. However, the situation is the reverse of Japan's. Men give gifts to women on Valentine's Day, and women return them onWhite Day.[142]
Europe
Estonia and Finland
In Finland, Valentine's Day is calledystävänpäivä ('Friend's Day'). As the name indicates, this day is more about remembering friends, not significant others. In Estonia, Valentine's Day was originally calledvalentinipäev and later alsosõbrapäev ('Friend's Day') as acalque of the Finnish term.[172]
France
In France, a traditionallyCatholic country, Valentine's Day is known simply as "Saint Valentin", and is celebrated in much the same way as other Western countries.[173] The relics of Saint Valentin de Terni, the patron of the St Valentine's Day, are in the Catholic church of Saint-Jean-Baptiste and Saint-Jean-l’Evangéliste, located in the southern France town ofRoquemaure, Gard. The celebrations of"Fête des Amoureux" takes place every two years on the Sunday closest to February 14. The village gets dressed in its 19th-century costume and put on the program with over 800 people.
Greece
Saint Valentine's Day, orΗμέρα του Αγίου Βαλεντίνου in Greek tradition, was not associated with romantic love. In the Eastern Orthodox church there is another saint who protects people who are in love,Hyacinth of Caesarea (feast day July 3); but this was not widely known until the late 1990s.[174] In contemporary Greece, Valentine's Day is generally celebrated as in the common western tradition.[175]
On Saint Valentine's Day in Ireland, many individuals who seek true love make aChristian pilgrimage to the Shrine of St. Valentine inWhitefriar Street Carmelite Church in Dublin, which is said to house relics of Saint Valentine of Rome; theypray at the shrine in hope of finding romance.[176] There lies a book in which foreigners and locals have written their prayer requests for love.[177]
Poland
Saint Valentine's Day was introduced to Poland together with the cult of Saint Valentine viaBavaria andTyrol.[178] However, it rose in popularity in the 1990s.[178] The only public celebration in Poland is held annually from 2002 inChełmno[178] under the name"Walentynki Chełmińskie" (Chełmno Valentine's). Because Chełmno's parish church of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary has been holding therelic of Saint Valentine since the Middle Ages, local cult of the saint has been combined with the Anglo-Saxon tradition.[178]
Portugal
In Portugal, the holiday is known as"Dia dos Namorados" (Lovers' Day / Day of the Enamoured). As elsewhere, couples exchange gifts, but in some regions, women give alenço de namorados ("lovers' handkerchief"), which is usually embroidered with love motifs.[179]
Romania
In recent years, Romania has also started celebrating Valentine's Day. This has drawn backlash from several groups, institutions,[180] and nationalist organizations likeNoua Dreaptă, who condemn Valentine's Day for being superficial, commercialist, and imported Westernkitsch. In order to counter the perceived denaturation of national culture,Dragobete, a spring festival celebrated in parts of Southern Romania, has been rekindled after having been ignored during the Communist years as the traditional Romanian holiday for lovers. The holiday is named after a character from Romanian folklore who was supposed to be the son ofBaba Dochia.[181] Its date used to vary depending on the geographical area, however nowadays it is commonly observed on February 24.[182]
Scandinavia
InDenmark andNorway, February 14 is known asValentinsdag, and is celebrated in much the same manner as in the United Kingdom.[183] InSweden it is calledAlla hjärtans dag ("All Hearts' Day") but is not widely celebrated. A 2016 survey revealed that fewer than 50% of men and women were planning to buy presents for their partners.[184] The holiday has only been observed since the 1960s.[183]
Spain
The holiday was first introduced in Spain through a 1948 advertisement campaign by the department store chainGalerías Preciados,[185] and had become widespread by the 1970s.[185]
Known as "San Valentín", the holiday is celebrated the same way as in the rest of the West. However, inCatalonia, the celebration is overshadowed by the highly popularSaint George's Day (Catalan:Diada de Sant Jordi), aCatalan tradition established in the late Middle Ages which already serves to the same romantic purpose of Valentine's Day.[186]
United Kingdom
Valentine's dance and ballroom dancing competition at theRoyal Palace Hotel in Kensington, London, Valentine's Day 1921
In the UK, just under half of the population spends money on their valentines. Around £1.3 billion is spent yearly on cards, flowers, chocolates, and other gifts, with an estimated 25 million cards sent.[187]
In Wales, some people celebrateDydd Santes Dwynwen (Saint Dwynwen's Day) on January 25 instead of (or as well as) Valentine's Day. The day commemoratesSt Dwynwen, the Welsh patron saint of love.[188] The Welsh name for Saint Valentine is Sant Ffolant.
In a 2016 poll conducted byChannel 4 for Valentine's Day,Jane Austen's line, "My heart is, and always will be, yours", from her novelSense and Sensibility as said by Edward Ferrars (Hugh Grant) to Elinor Dashwood (Emma Thompson) in the acclaimed1995 film adaptation, was voted the most romantic line from literature, film, and TV by thousands of women.[189]
Restrictions on Valentine's Day in some countries
Since 2009, certain practices pertaining to Valentine's Day (such as giving flowers, cards, or other gifts suggestive of Valentine's Day) are banned inIran.[190] Iran'sLaw Enforcement Force prosecutes distributors of goods with symbols associated with Valentine's Day.[191] In 2021, the Prosecutor's Office ofQom, Iran, stated that it would prosecute those who disseminate and provide anti-cultural symbols like those of Valentine's Day.[192] Although Valentine's Day is not accepted or approved by anyinstitution in Iran and has no official status, it is highly accepted among a large part of the population.[193] One of the reasons for Valentine's Day acceptance since the 2000s by the general population is the change in relations between the sexes, and because sexual relationships are no longer strictly limited to be within marriage.[194]
^St. Valentine's February 14 feast day was removed by theCatholic Church from theGeneral Roman Calendar in 1969 due to historical uncertainty about the saint (It was replaced with the feast day of SaintsCyril and Methodius). However, Saint Valentine's feast day remains celebrated on February 14 in some local liturgical calendars and bytraditionalist Catholics who use the pre-Vatican II General Roman Calendar. TheRoman Martyrology also remembers him on February 14.
^For example, one source claims incorrectly that "Pope Gelasius I muddled things in the 5th century by combining St. Valentine's Day with Lupercalia to expel the pagan rituals." Seipel, Arnie,The Dark Origins Of Valentine's DayArchived April 27, 2016, at theWayback Machine, National Public Radio, February 13, 2011
^Ansgar, 1976, pp. 60–61. The replacement of Lupercalia with Saint Valentine's celebration was suggested by researchers Kellog and Cox. Ansgar says "It is hardly credible, then, that Pope Gelasius could have introduced the feast of the Purification to counteract the Lupercalia, and in fact the historical records of his pontificate give no hint of such an action."
^Ansgar, 1976, pp. 60–61. This feast is celebrated 40 days after the Nativity. In Jerusalem the Nativity was celebrated on January 6, and this feast in February 14. But, in the West and even in Eastern places such as Antioch and Alexandria, Nativity was celebrated on December 25, and this Purification was not celebrated. When this feast was introduced to Rome, it was directly placed in February 2. Around that time, Jerusalem adopted the Nativity date of December 25 and moved the Purification to February 2.
References
^Chambers 21st Century Dictionary, Revised ed., Allied Publishers, 2005,ISBN9780550142108.
^Ansgar, 1986,Chaucer and the Cult of Saint valentine, pp. 46–58.
^Cooper, J.C. (October 23, 2013).Dictionary of Christianity. Routledge. p. 278.ISBN9781134265466.
^abChryssides, George D.; Wilkins, Margaret Z. (2014).Christians in the Twenty-First Century.Routledge.ISBN978-1-317-54557-6.The association between Valentine and lovers derives from a legend associated with Valentine of Rome. Emperor Claudius II wanted to recruit soldiers for the Roman army, and prohibited young men from marrying, in case homesickness for wives, homes and families should impair their military prowess. He also opposed the Christian faith, encouraging its persecution. Valentine, a physician priest, offered help to Christians whose lives were in peril and, although celibate himself, performed secret marriage rites for young men and women, defying the emperor's decree. He was discovered and imprisoned.
^Schuster, Ildefonso (1927).The Sacramentary: (Liber Sacramentorum) : Historical & Liturgical Notes on the Roman Missal. Burns, Oates & Washbourne Ltd. p. 429.VALENTINE, PRIEST AND MARTYR Station at the Cemetery of Valentine on the Via Flaminia. The festival of this martyr, who suffered during the persecution under the Emperor Claudius II, is to be found in the Gelasian Sacramentary. His sepulchral basilica on the Via Flaminia, built by Pope Julius I (341–52), and restored by Honorius I, was the first to greet the pilgrims as they approached the Eternal City, eagerly desirous of visiting the sepulchres of the ancient heroes of the Faith.
^abPolcar, P. (1894)."Gelasian Sacramentary 2.8–12".The Cult of Saints in Late Antiquity from its origins to circa AD 700, across the entire Christian world.Oxford University Press.Archived from the original on February 18, 2022. RetrievedFebruary 18, 2022.XVI Kal. Mart. in natali Valentini, Vitalis, et Feliculae. '14 February on the feast of Valentinus, Vitalis, and Felicula.' [*Valentinus, bishop of Terni (Interamna) and martyr of Rome, S00434; *Vitalis and Felicula, martyrs of Spoleto, *S01917]Three Prayers listed
^abLeigh Eric Schmidt, "The Fashioning of a Modern Holiday: St. Valentine's Day, 1840–1870"Winterthur Portfolio28.4 (Winter 1993), pp. 209–245.
^ab"Holy Days". Church of England (Anglican Communion). 2012.Archived from the original on June 29, 2012. RetrievedOctober 27, 2012.February 14 Valentine, Martyr at Rome, c.269
^Henry Ansgar Kelly, inChaucer and the Cult of Saint Valentine (Leiden: Brill) 1986, accounts for these and further local Saints Valentine (Ch. 6 "The Genoese Saint Valentine and the observances of May") in arguing that Chaucer had an established tradition in mind, and (pp. 79 ff.) linking the Valentine in question to Valentine, first bishop of Genoa, the only Saint Valentine honoured with a feast in springtime, the season indicated by Chaucer. Valentine of Genoa was treated byJacobus of Verazze in hisChronicle of Genoa (Kelly p. 85).
^Oxford Dictionary of Saints,s.v. "Valentine": "TheActs of both are unreliable, and the Bollandists assert that these two Valentines were in fact one and the same."
^Matilda Webb, The Churches and Catacombs of Early Christian Rome, 2001, Sussex Academic Press.
^Calendarium Romanum ex Decreto Sacrosancti Œcumenici Concilii Vaticani II Instauratum Auctoritate Pauli PP. VI Promulgatum (Typis Polyglottis Vaticanis, MCMLXIX), p. 117.
^Brewer, Ebenezer Cobham (1894).A Dictionary of Miracles: Imitative, Realistic, and Dogmatic.J. B. Lippincott & Co. p. 384.St. Valentine, laying his hand upon her eyes, said in prayer, "O Thou who art the true Light, give light to this Thy servant." Instantly sight was restored to the blind child. Asterius and his wife, falling at the feet of Valentine, prayed that they might be admitted into the Christian fellowship; whereupon St. Valentine commanded them to break their idols, to fast for three days, to forgive their enemies, and to be baptized. Asterius and his wife did all the saint told them to do, and Valentine baptized them and all their household, to the number of forty-six in all. —Les Petits Bollandistes, vol. ii. pp. 510, 511.
^abAnsgar, 1986, p. 59. It originated in the 1797 edition ofKemmish's Annual, according to Frank Staff,The Valentine and Its Origins (London, 1969), p. 122. Ansgar was unable to corroborate this.
^Ruth Webb Lee,A History of Valentines, 1952, Studio Publications in association with Crowell.
^"St. Valentine beheaded – Feb 14, 278".History. February 14, 2012.Archived from the original on March 16, 2015. RetrievedApril 9, 2015.When Valentine's actions were discovered, Claudius ordered that he be put to death. Valentine was arrested and dragged before the Prefect of Rome, who condemned him to be beaten to death with clubs and to have his head cut off. The sentence was carried out on February 14, on or about the year 270. Legend also has it that while in jail, St. Valentine left a farewell note for the jailer's daughter, who had become his friend, and signed it "From Your Valentine."
^John Foxe. Voices of the Martyrs. Bridge Logos Foundation. pg. 62.
^abDavid James Harkness, Legends and Lore: Southerns Indians Flowers Holidays, vol. XL, No. 2, April 1961, University of Tennessee Newsletter (bimonthly), p. 15.
^abcMax L. Christensen,Heroes and Saints: More Stories of People Who Made a Difference, 1997, Westminster John Knox Press. Chapter "The First Valentine", p. 25ISBN066425702X
^Frank Staff,The Valentine & Its Origins, 1969, Frederick A. Praeger.
^The Illustrated Library of the Natural Sciences, Volume 1, 1958, Simon and Schuster. p. 85 "The amethyst is the birthstone for February, and Saint Valentine is supposed to have worn an amethyst engraved with a figure of Cupid"
^Rayner W. Hesse (January 1, 2007).Jewelrymaking Through History: An Encyclopedia. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 21.ISBN978-0-313-33507-5.Archived from the original on September 15, 2015.It appears as the birthstone from February probably due to its association with Saint Valentine; therefore, amethyst has often been worn to attract love.
^abKliner, Pavla (February 15, 2008)."Sv. Valentin, prvi spomladin" [St Valentin, the First Spring Saint].Gorenjski glas (in Slovenian). Archived fromthe original on January 18, 2013.
^"Vreme kot nalašč za izlete" [Weather As on Purpose for Trips].Dnevnik.si (in Slovenian). February 9, 2011.Archived from the original on March 4, 2016.
^abForbes, Bruce David (October 27, 2015).America's Favorite Holidays: Candid Histories.University of California Press. p. 54.ISBN9780520284722.There is no indication in suppressing the Lupercalia, Gelasius put anything else in its place. Much later, in the 1500s, a Cardinal Baronius speculated that Gelasius converted the Lupercalia into the Feast of the Purification of the Virgin (or Candlemas), changing one purification ceremony into another, and many noted authors have repeated this claim. Recent scholarship has refuted Baronius's assertion...there is no evidence that Gelasius advocated a celebration of Valentine's Day as a replacement for the Lupercalia. ... The letter by Gelasius to Andromachus criticizing the Lupercalia contains no reference to Valentine, or Valentine's Day, or any replacement observance.
^Jack B. Oruch, "St. Valentine, Chaucer, and Spring in February"Speculum56.3 (July 1981:534–565)
^Oruch, Jack B. (1981). "St. Valentine, Chaucer, and Spring in February".Speculum.56 (3):534–565.doi:10.2307/2847741.ISSN0038-7134.JSTOR2847741.The idea that Valentine's Day customs perpetuated those of the Roman Lupercalia has been accepted uncritically and repeated, in various forms, up to the present. Most of those who offer this now traditional explanation cite no sources... Butler's ideas were prompted, in all probability, by a confused knowledge [or ...] wishful or pious fantasy.
^The Complete Works of Chaucer, ed. F.N. Robinson, Oxford University Press, London, p. 366, lines 309-315.
^The Riverside Chaucer, ed. Larry D. Benson, Oxford University Press, 1987, p. 389, lines 309-315.
^Kelly, Henry Ansgar,Chaucer and the Cult of Saint Valentine (Brill Academic Publishers, 1997),ISBN90-04-07849-5. Chapter 6 The Genoese St. Valentine, p. 80–83.
^"Take heart, Valentine's every other week".Independent Online. February 9, 2001. Archived fromthe original on February 5, 2009. RetrievedFebruary 14, 2012.Kelly gives the saint's day of the Genoese Valentine as May 3 and also claims that Richard's engagement was announced on this day.
^Gammer Gurton's Garland (London, 1784) in I. Opie and P. Opie,The Oxford Dictionary of Nursery Rhymes (Oxford University Press, 1951, 2nd ed., 1997), p. 375.
^Vivian Krug Hotchkiss (February 14, 1910)."Emotionscards.com". Emotionscards.com.Archived from the original on August 7, 2011. RetrievedAugust 6, 2011.
^Leigh Eric Schmidt, "The Commercialization of the calendar: American holidays and the culture of consumption, 1870–1930"Journal of American History78.3 (December 1991) pp 890–98.
^abMintz, Sidney (2015).The Oxford Companion to Sugar and Sweets. Oxford University Press. p. 157.
^Guinness World Records 2017. Guinness World Records. September 8, 2016. p. 90.ISBN9781910561348.Archived from the original on March 24, 2023. RetrievedSeptember 20, 2021.Richard Cadbury, eldest son of John Cadbury who founded the now iconic brand, was the first chocolate-maker to commercialize the association between confectionery and romance, producing a heart-shaped box of chocolates for Valentine's Day in 1868
^Anil Mathew Varughese (2003). "Globalization versus cultural authenticity? Valentine's Day and Hindu values". In Richard Sandbrook (ed.).Civilizing globalization: a survival guide. SUNY series in radical social and political theory (illustrated ed.).SUNY Press. p. 53.ISBN978-0-7914-5667-5.Archived from the original on September 15, 2015.
^Mankekar, Purnima (1999).Screening, Culture, Viewing Politics: An Ethnography of Television, Womanhood Nation in Postcolonial India. Duke University Press.ISBN0-8223-2390-7.
^As quoted in 'India Today: Pot Pourri Generation' September 15 issue, 2005
^"Korea rivals U.S. in romantic holidays". Archived from the original on February 17, 2009. RetrievedFebruary 15, 2009.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link),Centre Daily Times, February 14, 2009.
^Hecker, Jurgen (February 11, 2010)."Irish priests keep a candle for Saint Valentine".The Daily Telegraph.Archived from the original on February 7, 2018. RetrievedFebruary 6, 2018.A book in the church is filled with countless wishes addressed to the patron saint of lovers, while a steady stream of locals and visitors alike pray here for help in their amorous quests. "God has someone in mind for me, and I obviously haven't met him yet. So I just hope that Saint Valentine will assist me, that I will find him," said one female visitor. Another added: "We just prayed to find the right one, and I believe I will be led to him when the time is right."
^"Valentine's Day versus Dragobete". Archived from the original on June 27, 2010. RetrievedFebruary 14, 2007.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link), cultura.ro(in Romanian)
^"راه درست برخورد با ولنتاین" (in Persian). fararunews. February 19, 2017.Archived from the original on February 16, 2020. RetrievedFebruary 19, 2020.
^"دادستانی قم به جشن عشاق ورود کرد". Yong Journalists Club. Yong Journalists Club. February 13, 2021.Archived from the original on April 15, 2021. RetrievedFebruary 13, 2021.
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