Valencian displays transitional features betweenIbero-Romance languages andGallo-Romance languages. According to philological studies, the varieties of this language spoken in the Valencian Community andCarche cannot be considered a single dialect restricted to these borders: the severaldialects of Valencian (Alicante Valencian, Southern Valencian, Central Valencian orApitxat, Northern Valencian or Castellon Valencian and Transitional Valencian) belong to the Western group of Catalan dialects.[12][13]
The Valencian language is usually assumed to have spread in theKingdom of Valencia when Catalan and Aragonese colonists settled the territory after the conquests carried out byJames the Conqueror.[20] A new resettlement in the 17th century, after theexpulsion of the Moriscos, largely led by Castilians, defined the Spanish language varieties of inland Valencia. However, Valencian has historically been the predominant and administrative language in the kingdom.
The first documental reference to the usage of the termvalencià to refer to the spoken language of the Valencians is found in a judicial process of Minorca against Gil de Lozano, dated between 1343 and 1346, in which it is said that the mother of the indicted, Sibila, speaksvalencianesch because she was fromOrihuela (formerly Oriola).[21]
The concept of Valencian language appeared in the second half of the 14th century and it was progressively consolidated at the same time that its meaning changed due to events of a diverse nature (political, social, economic).[22] In the previous centuries the Catalan spoken in the territory of the Kingdom of Valencia was called in different ways:romanç (13th century) andcatalanesch (during the 14th century, for the medieval concept of nation as a linguistic community). The concept of the Valencian language appeared with a particularistic character due to the reinforced nature of the legal entity of the Kingdom of Valencia for being the Mediterranean commercial power during the 14th and 15th centuries, becoming in the cultural and literary centre of the Crown of Aragon. Thus, the Valencians, together with the Majorcans, presented themselves to other peoples as Catalans while they referred to themselves as Valencians and Majorcans to themselves to emphasise the different legal citizenship of each kingdom.[23]
Since theSpanish democratic transition, the autonomy or heteronomy of Valencian with respect to the rest of the Valencian-Catalan linguistic system has been the subject of debate and controversy among Valencians, usually with a political background. Although in the academic field (universities and institutions of recognised prestige) of linguists the unity of the language has never been questioned since studies of theRomance languages, part of Valencian public opinion believes and affirms that Valencian and Catalan are different languages, an idea that began to spread during the turbulent Valencian transition by sectors of the regionalist right and by the so-calledblaverisme (Blaverism). There is an alternative secessionist linguistic regulation, theNormes del Puig (Norms of El Puig), drawn up by theRoyal Academy of Valencian Culture (Real Acadèmia de Cultura Valenciana, RACV), an institution founded in 1915 by the Deputation of Valencia, but its use is very marginal.
The official status of Valencian is regulated by theSpanish Constitution and the ValencianStatute of Autonomy, together with the Law on the Use and Teaching of Valencian(ca).
Article 6 of the Valencian Statute of Autonomy sets the legal status of Valencian, establishing that:[24]
The native language[h] of the Valencian Community is Valencian.
Valencian is the official language in the Valencian Community, along with Spanish, which is the official language of Spain. Everyone shall have the right to know and use them, and to receive education on Valencian and in Valencian.
No one can be discriminated against by reason of their language.
Special protection and respect shall be given to the recuperation of Valencian.
TheAcadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua shall be the normative institution of the Valencian language.
Passed in 1983, the Law on the Use and Teaching of Valencian develops this framework, providing for the implementation of abilingual educational system, regulating the use of Valencian in the public administration and judiciary system, where citizens can freely use it when acting before both, or establishing the right to be informed by media in Valencian among others.
Valencian is also protected under theEuropean Charter for Regional or Minority Languages, ratified by Spain. However, the Committee of Experts of the Charter has pointed out a considerable number of deficiencies in the application of the Charter by the Spanish and Valencian governments.[25]
Unlike in other bilingualautonomous communities, Valencian has not historically been spoken to the same extent throughout theValencian Community. Slightly more than a quarter of its territory, equivalent to 10-15% of the population (its inland and southernmost areas), isSpanish-speaking since the Middle Ages.Additionally, it is also spoken by a small number of people in theCarchecomarca, a rural area in theRegion of Murcia adjoining the Valencian Community.[26][27][28] Nevertheless, Valencian does not have any official recognition in this area. Nowadays about 600 people are able to speak Valencian in Carche.[29]
The Valencian language is traditionally spoken along the coast and in some inland areas in the provinces of Alicante and Castellón, fromVinaròs (northernmost point of the extension of Valencian on the coast of the Valencian Community) toGuardamar (southernmost point of Valencian).
Knowledge of Valencian according to the 2001 census. The light green areas inland and in the southernmost part are not historically Valencian speaking (large).
In 2010 theGeneralitat Valenciana, or Valencian government, published a study,Coneixement i ús social del valencià (Knowledge and Social Use of Valencian),[30] which included a survey sampling more than 6,600 people in the provinces of Castellón, Valencia, and Alicante. The survey simply collected the answers of respondents and did not include any testing or verification. The results were:
Valencian was the language "always, generally, or most commonly used":
at home: 31.6%
with friends: 28.0%
in internal business relations: 24.7%
For ability:
48.5% answered they can speak Valencian "perfectly" or "quite well" (54.3% in the Valencian-speaking areas and 10% in the Spanish-speaking areas)
26.2% answered they can write Valencian "perfectly" or "quite well" (29.5% in the Valencian-speaking areas and 5.8% in the Spanish-speaking areas)
The survey shows that, although Valencian is still the common language in many areas in the Valencian Community, where slightly more than half of the Valencian population are able to speak it, most Valencians do not usually use Valencian in their social relations.
Moreover, according to the most recent survey in 2021,[31] there is a downward trend in everyday Valencian users. The lowest numbers are in the major cities ofValencia andAlicante, where the percentage of everyday speakers is at single-digit numbers. However, the percentage of residents who claim to be able to understand and read Valencian seems to have increased since 2015.
Knowledge of Valencian in the Valencian Community (2021)[32]
Valencian-speaking zone
Spanish-speaking zone
Total
Understands it
79.4%
54%
75.8%
Can speak it
54.9%
24.2%
50.6%
Can read it
60.9%
35%
57.2%
Can write it
44.4%
19.5%
40.8%
Due to a number of political and social factors, including repression, immigration and lack of formal instruction in Valencian, the number of speakers has severely decreased, and the influence of Spanish has led to the appearance of a number ofbarbarisms.[33]
The maindialects of Catalan. The Western Catalan block comprises the two dialects of North-Western Catalan and Valencian.[34][35][36]
This is a list of features of the main forms of Valencian. There is a great deal of variety within the Valencian Community, and by no means do the features below apply to every local version. For more general information about other linguistic varieties, seeCatalan language.
The stressed vowel system of Valencian (V) is the same as that of Eastern Catalan (EC):
/a/,/e/,/ɛ/,/i/,/o/,/ɔ/, and/u/ (with/ɛ/ and/ɔ/ being considerably lower than in EC).[41]
Close (and close-mid) vowels
The vowels/i/ and/u/ are more open and centralised than in Spanish.
This effect is more pronounced in unstressed syllables, where the phones are best transcribed[ɪ,ʊ][42] (e.g.xiquet[t͡ʃɪˈket] 'boy'). As the process is completely predictable, the latter symbols are not used elsewhere in the article.
(Due to the proximity of unstressed close and/or close-mid/mid vowels, non-standard colloquial Valencian may feature further lowerings producing vowel alterations ormetathesis, e.g.piscina → *pescina 'pool').[43]
The vowel/e/ is somewhat retracted[e̠] and/o/ is somewhat advanced[o̟] both in stressed and unstressed syllables (e.g.metro[ˈme̠tɾo̟] 'metro').
/e/ and/o/ can be realised as mid vowels[e̞,o̞] in some cases. This occurs more often with/o/ (e.g.amor[aˈmo̞ɾ] 'love').[44]
Open vowels
The so-called "open vowels",/ɛ/ and/ɔ/, are generally as low as/a/ in most Valencian dialects. The phonetic realisations of/ɛ/ approaches[æ] and/ɔ/ is as open as[ɒ] (as in traditionalRPdog). This feature is also found inBalearic.[45] For a list showing the frequency of these vowels, seecases where /ɛ/ and /ɔ/ are found in Valencian.
/ɛ/ is slightly more open and centralised before liquids/l,ɾ,r/ (e.g.verdes[ˈvæɾðes] 'greens') and in monosyllabics (set[ˈsæt] 'seven').[46]
/ɔ/ is most often a back vowel (soc[ˈsɒk] 'clog',bou[ˈbɒw] 'bull').
In some dialects (including Balearic)/ɔ/ can be unrounded ([ˈsɑk],[ˈbɑw]).[47]
The vowel/a/ is slightly more fronted and closed than in Central EC (but less fronted and closed than in Majorcan). The precise phonetic realisation of the vowel/a/ in Valencian is [ɐ ~ä], this vowel is subject to assimilation in many instances.[48]
Stressed/a/ can be retracted to[ɑ] in contact with velar consonants (including the velarised[ɫ]):[48]pal[ˈpɑl] ('stick'); and fronted to[a] in contact with palatals:[48]nyap[ˈɲap] ('botched job'). This is not transcribed in the article.
The palatal pronunciation of/a/ may merge with/ɛ/ by some speakers:raig[ˈræt͡ʃ] ('ray').[49]
Vowel reduction
There are five general unstressed vowels/a,e,i,o,u/ (rare instances of/ɛ/ and/ɔ/ are found through compounding and vowel harmony). Although unstressed vowels are more stable than in EC dialects, there are many cases where they merge:[50]
/a/: final unstressed/a/ may have the following values: [ɛ̈ ~ɔ̈ ~ä̝] (phonetically[ɜ~ɞ~ɐ], and traditionally transcribed without diacritics and/or atypical characters:/ɛ,ɔ,a/ for simplicity), depending on the preceding sounds and/or dialect (see vowel harmonybelow).
In some regions of the Valencian Community (especially Southern Valencian) unstressed/a/ followed by stressed/i/ becomes[ə]:raïm[rəˈim] ('grape').Beltran i Calvo (2000) states,[51] that final/a/ is close to[ə] in some towns of Marina Alta:xica[ˈt͡ʃikə] ('girl').
/e/: unstressed/e/ and/ɛ/ may be realised as/a/ (phonetically[a],[ɐ̃],[ɑ̃], etc.) in initial position in contact with sibilants, nasals and certain approximants and liquids (e.g.eixam[ajˈʃam] 'swarm').
Similarly (although not recommended by the AVL), unstressed/e/ and/ɛ/ merges with/i/ (phonetically[ɪ]) in contact with palatal consonants (e.g.genoll[d͡ʒiˈnoʎ] 'knee'), and especially (in this case it is accepted) in lexical derivation with the suffix-ixement (e.g.coneixement[konejʃiˈment] 'knowledge').
In the standard (/e/ →/i/[ɪ]) is only accepted in words with the suffix-ixement).[52]
/i/: it is more open and centralised[ɪ] in unstressed position.
/o/: unstressed/o/ and/ɔ/ may be realised as/u/ (phonetically[ʊ]) before labial consonants (e.g.coberts[kuˈbɛɾ(t)s] 'cutlery'), before a stressed syllable with a high vowel (e.g.sospira[susˈpiɾa] 'they [s.] sighs') and in some given names (e.g.Josep[d͡ʒuˈzɛp] 'Joseph').
Many Valencian dialects feature some sort ofvowel harmony (harmonia vocàlica). This process is normally progressive (i.e. preceding vowels affect those pronounced afterwards) over the last unstressed vowel of a word; e.g.tela/ˈtɛla/ >[ˈtɛlɛ] 'fabric, cloth',hora/ˈɔɾa/ >[ˈɔɾɔ] 'hour'. However (although regarded as non-standard), there are cases where regressive metaphony occurs over pretonic vowels; e.g.afecta/aˈfɛkta/ >[ɛˈfɛktɛ] 'affects',tovallola/tovaˈʎɔla/ >[tɔvɔˈʎɔlɔ] 'towel'.
Vowel harmony differs greatly from dialect to dialect, while many varieties assimilate both to the height and the quality of the preceding stressed vowel (e.g.terra[ˈtɛrɛ] 'Earth, land' anddona[ˈdɔnɔ] 'woman'); in other varieties, it is just the height that assimilates, so thatterra anddona can be realised with either/ɛ/ ([ˈtɛrɛ] and/or[ˈdɔnɛ]) or with/ɔ/ ([ˈtɛrɔ] and/or[ˈdɔnɔ]), depending on the region and speaker.[53]
In some subvarieties the unstressed vowels produced by vowel harmony may actually be higher than the stressed ones (e.g.porta[ˈpɔɾtɔ̝] 'door').
In a wider sense, vowel assimilations can occur in further instances (that is all or most instances of final unstressed/а/, regardless of the preceding sounds and involving palatalisation and/or velarisation):xica[ˈt͡ʃikɛ] or[ˈt͡ʃikɔ] ('girl'). This is considered non-standard.
Other sound changes
Vowel nasalisation and lengthening
All vowels are phonetically nasalised between nasal consonants or when preceding a syllable-final nasal (e.g.diumenge[diwˈmẽɲd͡ʒe], colloquial[duˈmẽɲd͡ʒe] 'Sunday').[50]
Vowels can be lengthened in some contexts[50] (e.g.coordinació[koːɾðinasiˈo] 'coordination').
/m/ is bilabial, except before/v/ and/f/ where it becomes labiodental[ɱ].
/n/ is apical front alveolar [n̺], and laminal denti-alveolar[n̪] before/t/ and/d/.
In addition, /n/ is postalveolar [n̠] or alveolo-palatal [ɲ̟] before /d͡ʒ/,/t͡ʃ/, and/ʃ/; velar [ŋ] before /ɡ/ and/k/; and labiodental [ɱ] before /v/ and/f/, where it merges with /m/. It also merges with /m/ (to [m]) before /b/ and /p/.
/ɲ/ is laminal front alveolo-palatal [ɲ̟].
/ŋ/ is velar and is only found in the coda.
Obstruents
Obstruents assimilate to the voicing of the following consonant and vowel:els amics[elz‿aˈmiks] ('the friends').
/b/ is lenited to the approximant (or fricative)[β̞] (or[β]) inbetacist dialects, after acontinuant, i.e. a vowel or any type of consonant other than astop ornasal (e.g.cabut[kaˈβ̞ut] 'big head, stubborn' vs.canvi[ˈkambi] 'change', Standard without betacism:[kaˈbut] and[ˈkaɱvi]).
Voiced contrast is lost word finally, socub ('cube') andcup ('winepress') are both pronounced with final[p] (also represented as[b̥]).
Final/p/ may be lenited before a vowel:cap estret[ˈkab‿esˈtɾet] or[ˈkaβ̞‿esˈtɾet] ('narrow head').[61]
Final/p/ after nasals is preserved in most dialects:camp[ˈkamp] ('field').
/d/ and/t/ are laminal denti-alveolar [t̪] and [d̪]. After /s/ and/z/, they are laminal alveolar [t̻] and [d̻].
/d/ islenited to the approximant (or fricative)[ð̞] (or[ð]), after acontinuant, i.e. a vowel or any type of consonant other than astop ornasal (exceptions include/d/ afterlateral consonants):fades[ˈfað̞es] 'fairies' vs.faldes[ˈfal̪des] ('skirts').
/d/[ð] is often elided between vowels following a stressed syllable (found notably in feminine participles,/ada/ →[aː], and in the suffix-dor); e.g.fideuà[fiðeˈwaː] ( <fideuada) 'fideuà',mocador[mokaˈoɾ] 'tissue' (note this feature, although widely spread in south Valencia, is not recommended in Standard Valencian,[40] except for reborrowed terms such asAlbà,Roà, the previously mentionedfideuà, etc.).
Voiced contrast is lost word finally, sosord ('deaf') andsort ('luck') are both pronounced with final[t] (also represented as[d̥]).
Final/t/ may be lenited before a vowel:tot açò[ˈtoð‿aˈsɔ] ('all this').[61]
Final/t/ after nasals and laterals is preserved in most dialects:cent[ˈsen̪t] ('hundred') andmolt[ˈmol̪t] ('very').
/ɡ/ and/k/ are velar.
/ɡ/ and/k/ arefronted to pre-velar position [ɟ̠,c̠] beforefront vowels:qui[ˈc̠i] ('who'). This is not transcribed in broader transcriptions of Valencian.
/ɡ/ islenited to the approximant (or fricative)[ɣ̞] (or[ɣ]) after acontinuant, i.e. a vowel or any type of consonant other than astop ornasal.
In some dialects,/ɡ/ may lenite[ɣ] in all environments (e.g.gat[ˈɣ̞at]), except after nasal (angoixa[aŋˈɡojʃa] 'anguish').[62]
Voiced contrast is lost word finally, soreg ('irrigation') andrec ('irrigation ditch') are both pronounced with final[k] (also represented as[ɡ̥]).
Final/k/ may be lenited before a vowel:poc alt[ˈpɔɣ‿ˈal̪t] ('not very tall').[61]
Final/k/ after nasals is preserved in most dialects:banc[ˈbaŋk] ('bank').
Affricates and fricatives
/d͡z/ and/t͡s/ are apical alveolar [d͡z̺] and[t͡s̺]. They may be somewhat fronted, so that the stop component is laminal denti-alveolar, while the fricative component is apical post-dental. /t͡s/ is rare and may not be phonemic.
In the Standard, intervocalic/d͡z/, e.g.setze ('sixteen'), and/t͡s/, e.g.potser ('maybe'), are recommended to be pronounced with a gemination of the stop element ([dd͡z] and[tt͡s], respectively. However this is not transcribed in standard transcriptions.
Note/d͡z/ is deaffricated to[z] in verbs ending in-itzar and derivatives:analitzar[analiˈzaɾ] ('to analyse'),organització[oɾɣanizasiˈo] ('organisation'). Also in words likebotzina[boˈzina] ('horn'),horitzó[oɾiˈzo] ('horizon') andmagatzem[maɣaˈzem] ('storehouse') (cf.guitza[ˈɡid͡za], 'kick' (from an animal)).
/d͡ʒ/,/t͡ʃ/, ([ʒ]), and/ʃ/ are described as back alveolo-palatal, or postalveolar.
Valencian has preserved in most of its varieties the mediaevalvoiced pre-palatal affricate/d͡ʒ/ (similar to thej in English "jeep") in contexts where other modern dialects have developedfricative consonants/ʒ/ (like thesi in English "vision"), e.g.dijous[diˈd͡ʒɔws] ('Thursday').
Note the fricative[ʒ] (and[jʒ]) appears only as a voicedallophone of/ʃ/ (and/jʃ/) before vowels and voiced consonants; e.g.peix al forn[ˈpejʒalˈfoɾn] ('oven fish').
Unlike other Catalan dialects,/d͡ʒ/ and/t͡ʃ/ do not geminate (in most accents):metge[ˈmed͡ʒe] ('medic'), andcotxe[ˈkot͡ʃe] ('car'). Exceptions may include learned terms likepidgin[ˈpidd͡ʒin] ('pidgin').
Final etymological/d͡ʒ/ is devoiced to[t͡ʃ]:lleig[ˈʎet͡ʃ] ('ugly').
/z/ and/s/ are apical back alveolar[z̺] and[s̺], also described as postalveolar.
/v/ is realised as an approximant[ʋ] after continuants:avanç[aˈʋans] ('advance'). This is not transcribed in this article.
Final/v/ is devoiced to[f] (also represented as[v̥]):salv[ˈsalf] ('save, except').
Liquids(rhotics and laterals)
/l/ is apical front alveolar[l̺], and laminal denti-alveolar[l̪] before/t/ and/d/. (In addition, /l/ is postalveolar [l̠] or alveolo-palatal [ʎ̟] before /d͡ʒ/,/t͡ʃ/, and/ʃ/).
/l/ is normallyvelarised ([ɫ]), especially in the coda.
/l/ is generallydropped in the wordaltre[ˈatɾe] ('other'), as well as in derived terms.[40]
/ʎ/ is laminal front alveolo-palatal[ʎ̟].
/ɾ/ is apical front alveolar [ɾ̺] and/r/ is apical back alveolar[r̺], also described as postalveolar.
/ɾ/ is mostly retained in the coda (e.g.anar[aˈnaɾ], 'to go'), except for some cases where it can be dropped:prendre[ˈpendɾe] ('to take'),arbre[ˈabɾe] ('tree'), anddiners[diˈnes] ('money').[40]
In some dialects/ɾ/ can be further dropped in combinatory forms with infinitives and pronouns (anar-me'n[aˈna.men] 'to go away, to leave' [myself]).
In other dialects, further instances of final/ɾ/ (like nouns and/or infinitives, regardless of combinatory forms with pronouns) are lost:anar[aˈna] ('to go').
Semivowels
The vowels/i/ and/u/ have as non-vocalic correlates the semivowels[j] and[w], respectively, which form a diphthong with the preceding or following vowel (e.g.hiena[ˈjena] 'hyena',feia[ˈfeja] 'I / they [s.] was doing',meua[ˈmewa] 'mine',pasqua[ˈpaskwa] 'Easter').
In some places, some terms can undergosound changes (such as metathesis), likecridar → *crid(r)ar orquid(r)ar ('to call'). This is heard frequently in the termaigua (standard) →àuia (colloquial) ('water').
The present first-person singular of verbs differs from Central Catalan. All those forms without final -o are more akin to mediaeval Catalan and contemporary Balearic Catalan.
Comparison of present first-person singular with Central Catalan
Stem
Infinitive
Present first person singular
Catalan
English
Valencian
Central
English
IPA
IPA
-ar
parlar
to speak
parle
[ˈpaɾle]
parlo
[ˈpaɾlu]
I speak
-re
batre
to beat
bat
[ˈbat]
bato
[ˈbatu]
I beat
-er
témer
to fear
tem
[ˈtem]
temo
[ˈtemu]
I fear
-ir
sentir
to feel
sent
[ˈsent]
sento
[ˈsentu]
I feel
senc (col.)
[ˈseŋk]
inchoative -ir
patir
to suffer
patisc
[paˈtisk]
pateixo
[pəˈtɛʃu]
I suffer
patesc
[paˈtesk]
Present subjunctive is more akin to medieval Catalan and Spanish; -ar infinitives end⟨e⟩, -re, -er and -ir verbs end in⟨a⟩ (in contemporary Central Catalan present subjunctive ends in⟨i⟩).
An exclusive feature of Valencian is thesubjunctive imperfect morpheme -ra:que ell vinguera ('that he might come').
In Valencian the simple past tense (e.g.cantà 'he sang') is more frequently used in speech than in Central Catalan, where the periphrastic past (e.g.va cantar 'he sang') is prevailing and the simple past mostly appears in written language. The same, however, may be said of the Balearic dialects.[68]
The infinitiveveure ('to see') has the variantvore, which belongs to more informal and spontaneous registers.
The usage of the periphrasis of obligationtindre +que + infinitive is widely spread in colloquial Valencian, instead of the Standardhaver +de (equivalent to English "have to").
Clitics
In general, use of modern forms of the determinate article (el,els 'the') and the third-person unstressed object pronouns (el,els 'him, them'), though some dialects (for instance the one spoken inVinaròs area) preserve etymological formslo,los as inLleida. For the other unstressed object pronouns, etymological old forms (me,te,se,ne,mos,vos...) can be found, depending on places, in conjunction with the more modern reinforced ones (em,et,es,en,ens,us...).
The adverbial pronounhi ('there') is almost never used in speech and is replaced by other pronouns. The adverbial pronounen ('him/her/them/it') is used less than in Catalonia and the Balearic Islands.[68]
Combined weak clitics withli ('him/her/it') preserve theli, whereas in Central Catalan it is replaced byhi. For example, the combinationli +el givesli'l in Valencian (l'hi in Central Catalan).
[o], when it comes after a consonant or a semivowel:donar-ho[doˈnaɾo] ('to give it').
The personal pronounjo ('I') and the adverbja ('already') are not pronounced according to the spelling, but to the etymology ([ˈjɔ] and[ˈja], instead of/ˈ(d)ʒɔ/ and/ˈ(d)ʒa/). Similar pronunciations can be heard in North-Western Catalan and Ibizan.
The prepositionamb ('with') merges withen ('in') in most Valencian dialects.
The compound prepositionper a ('for') is usually reduced top'a in colloquial Valencian.
Valencian preserves the mediaeval system of demonstratives with three different levels of demonstrative precision (este oraquest/açò/ací,eixe oraqueix/això/ahí,aquell/allò/allí orallà, whereaquest andaqueix are almost never used) (feature shared with modern Ribagorçan and Tortosan).
The colloquial variant ofaçò ('this'),astò, is heard frequently in Alicante's Valencian.
Valencian vocabulary contains words both restricted to the Valencian-speaking domain, as well as words shared with other Catalan varieties, especially withNorth-Western ones. Words are rarely spread evenly over the Valencian Community, but are usually contained to parts of it, or spread out into other dialectal areas. Examples includehui 'today' (found in all of Valencia except transitional dialects, in Northern dialectsavui) andespill 'mirror' (shared with North-Western dialects, Central Catalanmirall). There is also variation within Valencia, such as 'corn', which isdacsa in Central and Southern Valencian, butpanís in Alicante and Northern Valencian (as well as in North-Western Catalan). Since Standard Valencian is based on the Southern dialect, words from this dialect are often used as primary forms in the standard language, despite other words traditionally being used in other Valencian dialects. Examples of this aretomaca 'tomato' (which istomata outside of Southern Valencian) andmatalaf 'mattress' (which ismatalap in parts of Valencia, including the Southern Valencian area).
Below are a selection of words which differ or have different forms in Standard Valencian and Catalan. In many cases, both standards include this variation in their respective dictionaries, but differ as to what form is considered primary. In other cases, Valencian includes colloquial forms not present in the IEC standard. Primary forms in each standard are shown in bold (and may be more than one form). Words in brackets are present in the standard in question, but differ in meaning from how thecognate is used in the other standard.
Valencian and Catalan use theLatin script, with some added symbols and digraphs.[71] The Catalan-Valencian orthographies are systematic and largely phonologically based.[71] Standardisation of Catalan was among the topics discussed during the First International Congress of the Catalan Language, held in Barcelona October 1906. Subsequently, the Philological Section of the Institut d'Estudis Catalans (IEC), founded in 1911, published theNormes ortogràfiques in 1913 under the direction ofAntoni Maria Alcover andPompeu Fabra. In 1932, Valencian writers and intellectuals gathered inCastelló de la Plana to make a formal adoption of the so-calledNormes de Castelló (Castelló Norms), a set of guidelines following Pompeu Fabra's Catalan language norms.[72]
The lettersk,y andw only appear in loanwords. In the case of y it also appears in the digraphny. Most of the letters are pronounced the same in both standards (Valencian and Catalan). The lettersc andg have a soft and hard pronunciation similar to English and other Romance languages,ç (found also in Portuguese and French) always has a soft pronunciation and may appear in word final position. The only differences between the main standards are the contrast ofb/b/ andv/v/ (also found in Insular Catalan), the treatment of long consonants with a tendency to simplification in Valencian (see table with main digraphs and letter combinations), the affrication (/d͡ʒ/) of both softg (after front vowels) andj (in most cases), the affrication (/t͡ʃ/) of initial and postconsonantalx (except in some cases)[x] and the lenition (deaffrication) oftz/d͡z/ in most instances (especially the -itzar suffix).
^abcdefghijThe consonants and digraphs⟨b, d, g, v / w, z, (i)g / j, tz⟩/b,d,ɡ,v,z,d͡ʒ,d͡z/ become[p,t,k,f,s,t͡ʃ,t͡s] in final position (e.g.club,fred,reg,salv /Tomászow,brunz,mig /Raj,Hertz).
^abcdBefore central (/a/, includingschwa in Catalan) and back vowels (/o,u/).
^abcdefBefore front vowels (/e,i/). Also beforeschwa[ə] in Catalan.
^For etymological reasons, ⟨j⟩ is written before e/e/ in certain cases, such as jerarquia ('hierarchy'), jeroglífic ('hieroglyph'), jersei ('jersey'), jesuïta ('Jesuit'), majestat ('majesty'), etc., and before the groups -ecc- and -ect-: injecció ('injection'), objecte ('object'), etc. In fewer cases, and mainly in loanwords,⟨j⟩ is also found beforei/i/ (Beijing 'Beijing',fijià 'Fijian',Fuji 'Fuji',Jim 'Jim', etc.).
^In Valencian,⟨j⟩ is pronounced/j/ (yod) in terms likejo ('I') andja ('already'). The Spanish⟨j⟩/x/ is found in loanwords likeorujo ('grape liqueur') orLa Rioja ('La Rioja').
^abcInitial⟨r⟩ is pronounced/r/ (e.g.ros 'blond'); while intervocalic ⟨r⟩ is pronounced /ɾ/ (vora 'edge'), except in compounds (arítmia 'arrhythmia', pronounced with/r/).
^abcInitial⟨s⟩ is pronounced/s/ (e.g.suc 'juice'); while intervocalic ⟨s⟩ is pronounced /z/ (cosa 'thing'), except in compounds (antesala 'antechamber', pronounced with/s/).
^abThe⟨x⟩/ks/ pronunciation is found between vowels (e.g.màxim 'maximum'), between a vowel and voiceless consonant (extens 'extensive') and word finally, after a vowel (annex 'annexe') or consonant (larinx 'larynx'). The letter⟨x⟩ is pronounced/ɡz/ in the initial groupsex- andinex- followed by vowel,⟨h⟩ or a voiced consonant (examen 'exam',exhortar 'to exhort',exdiputat 'ex-deputy',inexorable 'inexorable').
^abBefore the vowels/a,o/ (spelled⟨a⟩ and⟨o⟩) it is pronounced/ɡw/ and/qw/ (e.g.guants 'gloves',quota 'share, fee').
^In some Valencian dialects (as well as Standard Catalan) theyod in the digraph⟨ix⟩/jʃ/ →/ʃ/ is dropped (e.g.peix[ˈpeʃ] 'fish'). The general (Valencian) pronunciation retains/j/ ([ˈpejʃ]). Before vowels and voiced consonants, the⟨ix⟩ digraph/jʃ/ (or (/ʃ/) is voiced to[(j)ʒ] (peix blau 'blue fish').
^"In Valencian⟨ŀl⟩ is only geminated in very formal registers. In Catalan it is geminated in careful speech.
^The group⟨th⟩ is pronounced/t/ in native words (e.g.tothom[toˈtɔm] or[tuˈtɔm] 'everybody').
^abcdIn Valencian⟨tl⟩ and⟨tn⟩ can be pronounced with gemination or not, ⟨tm⟩ and⟨tll⟩ are only geminated in very formal registers. In Catalan⟨tl⟩,⟨tll⟩,⟨tm⟩ and⟨tn⟩ are geminated in careful speech.
^In Valencian initial⟨ts⟩ (found only in loanwords, e.g.tsar 'tsar') is deaffricated. However, it may be pronounced in very formals registers.
^In Valencian⟨tz⟩ is deaffricated in most instances.
^The acute (´) and grave (`) accents indicate stress and vowel height.
^The diaeresis (¨) is used to indicate avowel hiatus or a non-silent/u/ after⟨g⟩ or⟨q⟩.
^Before central (/a/, includingschwa in Catalan) and back vowels (/o,u/), also after any vowels in the coda.
TheAcademy of Valencian Studies (Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua, AVL), established by law in 1998 by theValencian autonomous government and constituted in 2001, is in charge of dictating the official rules governing the use of Valencian.[73] Currently, the majority of people who write in Valencian use this standard.[74]
Standard Valencian is based on the standard of theInstitute of Catalan Studies (Institut d'Estudis Catalans, IEC), used inCatalonia, with a few adaptations.[75] This standard roughly follows theCastelló Norms (Normes de Castelló) from 1932,[76] a set of othographic guidelines regarded as a compromise between the essence and style ofPompeu Fabra's guidelines, but also allowing the use of Valencian idiosyncrasies.
Transitional Valencian (valencià de transició) orTortosan (tortosí), also ambiguously termedNorthern Valencian: spoken in thecomarques situated betweenCastellon and the border, including towns likeBenicarló,Vinaròs andMorella, as well as the contiguous areas to the north of the border: theMatarranya area in Aragon (province ofTeruel) and a strip of southernCatalonia surroundingTortosa.
Word-initial and postconsonantal/d͡ʒ/ (Catalan/ʒ/ and/d͡ʒ/~/ʒ/) alternates with[(j)ʒ] intervocalically; e.g.joc[ˈd͡ʒɔk] ('game'), butpitjor[piˈʒo] ('worse'),boja[ˈbɔjʒa] ('crazy') (Standard Valencian/ˈd͡ʒɔk/,/piˈd͡ʒoɾ/;/ˈbɔd͡ʒa/; Standard Catalan/ˈʒɔk/,/piˈd͡ʒo/ and/ˈbɔʒə/).
Final⟨r⟩[ɾ] is not pronounced in infinitives; e.g.cantar[kanˈta] (Standard/kanˈtaɾ/) ('to sing').
Archaicarticleslo,los ('the') are used instead ofel,els; e.g.lo xic ('the boy'),los hòmens ('the men').
Northern Valencian (valencià septentrional) orCastellon Valencian (valencià castellonenc): spoken in an area surrounding the city ofCastellón de la Plana.
Use of[e] sound instead of standard⟨a⟩/a/ in the third person singular of most verbs; e.g.(ell) cantava[kanˈtave] (Standard/kanˈtava/) 'he sang'. Thus, Northern Valencian dialects contrast forms like(jo) cantava[kanˈtava] ('I sang') with(ell) cantava[kanˈtave] ('he sang'), but merges(jo) cante[ˈkante] ('I sing') with(ell) canta[ˈkante] ('he sings').
Depalatalization of/jʃ/ to[jsʲ] by some speakers; e.g.caixa/ˈkajʃa/>[ˈkajsʲa] ('box').
Central area:
Central Valencian (valencià central), orApitxat, spoken inValencia city and its area. One of the two most widely spoken dialects of Valencian, it is not however used as the main model for the oral standard in Valencian media and education,[77] and is sometimes connated negatively.[78][79][80]
Sibilant merger: all voiced sibilants are devoiced (/d͡ʒ/>[t͡ʃ],/d͡z/>[t͡s],/z/>[s]); that is,apitxat pronouncescasa[ˈkasa] ('house') andjoc[ˈt͡ʃɔk] ('game'), where other Valencians would pronounce/ˈkaza/ and/ˈd͡ʒɔk/ (a feature shared withRibagorçan). The namesapitxat,parlar apitxat[81] and the verbapitxar all refer to this specific pronunciation pattern[82][81] - as well as itself representing a prime example of devoicing, since devoicedapitxar is also a synonym of voicedpitjar.[82]
Betacism, that is the merge of/v/ into/b/; e.g.viu[ˈbiw] (instead of/ˈviw/) ('he lives').
Fortition (gemination) and vocalisation of final consonants;nit[ˈnitː(ə)] (instead of/ˈnit/) ('night').
It preserves the strong simple past, which has been substituted by an analytic past (periphrastic past) withvadere +infinitive in the rest of modern Catalan and Valencian variants. For example,aní instead ofvaig anar ('I went').
Southern area:
Southern Valencian (valencià meridional) orUpper Southern Valencian: spoken in the contiguouscomarques located south of Valencia and north of Alicante, respectively, for example in the cities of Dénia, Gandia, Xàtiva and Alcoi, among others. This is the dialect which includes the largest number of general phonetic features considered proper to Standard Valencian,[77] as well as being the second most widely spoken and located in the geographic centre of the country; it is therefore considered by some Valencians as a reference point for Valencian Catalan as a whole.[80]
Vowel harmony: the final syllable of a disyllabic word adopts a preceding open⟨e⟩ (/ɛ/) and/or⟨o⟩ (/ɔ/) if the final vowel is an unstressed -⟨a⟩; e.g.terra[ˈtɛrɛ] ('Earth, land'),dona[ˈdɔnɔ] ('woman'). Further merges (such as[ˈtɛrɔ] and[ˈdɔnɛ]) depends on the town and speaker.
This dialect retains geminate consonants (⟨tl⟩/lː/ and⟨tn⟩/nː/); e.g.guatla[ˈɡwalːa] ('quail'),cotna[ˈkonːa] ('rind').
Weak pronouns are "reinforced" in front of the verb (em,en,et,es, etc.) contrary to other dialects which maintains "full form" (me,ne,te,se, etc.).
Alicante Valencian (valencià alacantí) orLower Southern Valencian: spoken in and around the cities ofAlicante,Elche and the area of Carche in Murcia.
Intervocalic/d/ elision in most instances; e.g.roda[ˈrɔa] ('wheel'),nadal[naˈal] ('Christmas').
Yod is not pronounced in⟨ix⟩/jʃ/>[ʃ]; e.g.caixa[ˈkaʃa] ('box').
Final⟨r⟩ is not pronounced in infinitives in some areas and/or contexts; e.g.cantar[kanˈta] ('to sing').
There are some archaisms like:ans instead ofabans ('before'),manco instead ofmenys ('less'),dintre instead ofdins ('into') ordevers instead ofcap a ('towards').
There are more interferences with Spanish than other dialects:assul (fromazul) instead ofblau (oratzur) ('azure'),llimpiar (fromlimpiar) instead ofnetejar ('to clean') orsacar (fromsacar) instead oftraure ('take out').
Employees demonstrate in front of the RTVV headquarters inBurjassot the day of its closure
Until its dissolution in November 2013, the public-serviceRàdio Televisió Valenciana (RTVV) was the main broadcaster of radio and television in Valencian language. The Generalitat Valenciana constituted it in 1984 in order to guarantee thefreedom of information of the Valencian people in their own language.[83] It was reopened again in 2018 in the same location but under a different name, À Punt, and it is owned by À Punt Media, a group owned by theGeneralitat Valenciana. The new television channel claims to be plural, informative and neutral for all of the Valencian population. It is bilingual, with a focus on the Valencian language. It is recognised as a regional TV channel.[84]
Prior to its dissolution, the administration of RTVV under thePeople's Party (PP) had been controversial due to accusations of ideological manipulation and lack of plurality. The news broadcast was accused of giving marginal coverage of theValencia Metro derailment in 2006 and the indictment of President de la GeneralitatFrancisco Camps in theGürtel scandal in 2009.[85] Supervisors appointed by the PP were accused ofsexual harassment.[86]
In face of an increasing debt due to excessive expenditure by the PP, RTVV announced in 2012 a plan to shed 70% of its labour. The plan was nullified on 5 November 2013 by theNational Court after trade unions appealed against it. On that same day, the President de la GeneralitatAlberto Fabra (also fromPP) announced RTVV would be closed, claiming that reinstating the employees was untenable.[87] On 27 November, the legislative assembly passed the dissolution of RTVV and employees organised to take control of the broadcast, starting a campaign against the PP. Nou TV's last broadcast ended abruptly when Spanish police pulled the plug at 12:19 on 29 November 2013.[88]
Having lost all revenues from advertisements and facing high costs from the termination of hundreds of contracts, critics question whether the closure of RTVV has improved the financial situation of the Generalitat, and point out to plans to benefit private-owned media.[89] Currently, the availability of media in the Valencian language is extremely limited. All the otherautonomous communities in Spain, including the monolingual ones, have public-service broadcasters, with the Valencian Community being the only exception despite being the fourth most populated.
In July 2016 a new public corporation,Valencian Media Corporation, was launched in substitution of RTVV. It manages and controls several public media in the Valencian Community, including the television channel À Punt, which started broadcasting in June 2018.
Linguists, including Valencian scholars, deal with Catalan and Valencian as the same language. The official regulating body of the language of the Valencian community, theValencian Language Academy (Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua, AVL) considers Valencian and Catalan to be two names for the same language.[90]
EnglishWikisource has original text related to this article:
[T]he historical patrimonial language of theValencian people, from a philological standpoint, is the same shared by the autonomous communities ofCatalonia andBalearic Islands, andPrincipality of Andorra. Additionally, it is the patrimonial historical language of other territories of the ancientCrown of Aragon [...] The different varieties of these territories constitute a language, that is, a "linguistic system" [...] From this group of varieties, Valencian has the same hierarchy and dignity as any other dialectal modality of that linguistic system [...]
— Ruling of the Valencian Language Academy of 9 February 2005, extract of point 1.[76][i]
Chronological map showing linguistic evolution of Valencian/Catalan in southwest Europe
The AVL was established in 1998 by thePP-UV government ofEduardo Zaplana. According toEl País,Jordi Pujol, then president of Catalonia and of theCiU, negotiated with Zaplana in 1996 to ensure the linguistic unity of Catalan in exchange for CiU support of the appointment ofJosé María Aznar asPrime Minister of Spain.[91] Zaplana has denied this, claiming that "[n]ever, never, was I able to negotiate that which is not negotiable, neither that which is not in the negotiating scope of a politician. That is, the unity of the language".[j] The AVL orthography is based on theNormes de Castelló, a set of rules for writing Valencian established in 1932.
A rival set of rules, calledNormes del Puig, were established in 1979 by theRoyal Academy of Valencian Culture (Real Acadèmia de Cultura Valenciana, RACV), which considers itself a rival language academy to the AVL, and promotes analternative orthography, treating Valencian as an independent language, as opposed to a variety of Catalan. Compared to Standard Valencian, this orthography excludes many words not traditionally used in the Valencian Community, and also prefers spellings such as⟨ch⟩ for/t͡ʃ/ and⟨y⟩ for/j/ (as inSpanish). Besides, these alternative Norms are also promoted and taught by the cultural associationLo Rat Penat.
Valencian is classified as a Western dialect, along with the North-Western varieties spoken in Western Catalonia (Province of Lleida and most of theProvince of Tarragona).[92][93] The various forms of Catalan and Valencian are mutually intelligible (ranging from 90% to 95%)[94]
Despite the position of the official organisations, an opinion poll carried out between 2001 and 2004[15] showed that the majority (65%) of the Valencian people (both Valencian and Spanish speakers) consider Valencian different from Catalan: this position is promoted by people who do not use Valencian regularly.[95] Furthermore, the data indicate that younger people educated in Valencian speaking areas are considerably less likely to hold these views. According to an official poll in 2014,[14] 54% of Valencians considered Valencian to be a language different from Catalan, while 41% considered the languages to be the same. Different opinions about the unity of the language are different between people with certain levels of studies and the opinion also differs between each of the Valencian provinces. The opinion agreeing on the unity of Valencian and Catalan has significant differences regarding age, level of education and province of residence, with a majority of those aged 18–24 (51%) and those with a higher education (58%) considering Valencian to be the same language as Catalan. This can be compared to those aged 65 and above (29%) and those with only primary education (32%), where the same view has its lowest support. People living in the province ofCastellón are more prone to be in favor of the unity of the language, while people living in the province ofAlicante are more prone to be against the unity of the language, especially in the areas where Valencian is not a mandatory language at schools. By applying a binary logistic regression to the same data, it was found that, among all these variables, the relevant ones are political ideology, educational level, geographical origin and identity: negative views on the unity of Catalan/Valencian were much more likely to be held among right-wing partisans, people with lower studies, people from the Alicante provice (the one with percentually the fewest Valencian speakers, especially in the areas where Valencian is not a mandatory language at schools) and people who do not self-identify as Valencian.[96]
Later studies showed that the results differ significantly depending on the way the question is posed;[97] the findings of the most recent work on polling indicate that Valencians today do widely agree that Valencian and Catalan belong to the same language, but that the wording of the question significantly alters the result, even more so than other statistically significant factors - which are the respondent's ideology, language skill and use, and ethnic self-identification: thus, references toCatalonia produce a measurable downturn in support and mentioningdiversity within the same language strengthens their agreement.[98]
The ambiguity regarding the term Valencian and its relation to Catalan has sometimes led to confusion and controversy. In 2004, during the drafting of theEuropean Constitution, the regional governments of Spain where a language other than Spanish is co-official were asked to submit translations into the relevant language in question. Since different names are used in Catalonia ("Catalan") and in the Valencian Community ("Valencian"), the two regions each provided one version, which were identical to each other.[99]
^TheValencian Normative Dictionary of the Valencian Academy of the Language states that Valencian is a "Romance language spoken in the Valencian Community, as well as in Catalonia, the Balearic Islands, the French department of thePyrénées-Orientales, the Principality of Andorra, the eastern flank of Aragon and the Sardinian town of Alghero (unique in Italy), where it receives the name of 'Catalan'."
^TheCatalan Language Dictionary of the Institut d'Estudis Catalans states in the sixth definition of Valencian that it is equivalent to Catalan language in the Valencian Community.
^TheCatalan Language Dictionary of theInstitut d'Estudis Catalans states in the second definition of Valencian that it is the Western dialect of Catalan spoken in the Valencian Community.
^The original text says "llengua pròpia", a term that does not have an equivalent in English.
^Original full text of Dictamen 1:D'acord amb les aportacions més solvents de la romanística acumulades des del segle XIX fins a l'actualitat (estudis de gramàtica històrica, de dialectologia, de sintaxi, de lexicografia…), la llengua pròpia i històrica dels valencians, des del punt de vista de la filologia, és també la que compartixen les comunitats autònomes de Catalunya i de les Illes Balears i el Principat d'Andorra. Així mateix és la llengua històrica i pròpia d'altres territoris de l'antiga Corona d'Aragó (la franja oriental aragonesa, la ciutat sarda de l'Alguer i el departament francés dels Pirineus Orientals). Els diferents parlars de tots estos territoris constituïxen una llengua, és a dir, un mateix "sistema lingüístic", segons la terminologia del primer estructuralisme (annex 1) represa en el Dictamen del Consell Valencià de Cultura, que figura com a preàmbul de la Llei de Creació de l'AVL. Dins d'eixe conjunt de parlars, el valencià té la mateixa jerarquia i dignitat que qualsevol altra modalitat territorial del sistema lingüístic, i presenta unes característiques pròpies que l'AVL preservarà i potenciarà d'acord amb la tradició lexicogràfica i literària pròpia, la realitat lingüística valenciana i la normativització consolidada a partir de les Normes de Castelló.
^"Nunca, nunca, pude negociar lo que no se puede negociar, ni aquello que no está en el ámbito de la negociación de un político. Es decir la unidad de la lengua."
^Luján, Míriam; Martínez, Carlos D.; Alabau, Vicente.Evaluation of several Maximum Likelihood Linear Regression variants for language adaptation(PDF). Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation, LREC 2008. p. 860.the total number of people who speak Catalan is 7,200,000, (...). The Valencian dialect is spoken by 27% of all Catalan speakers. citing Vilajoana, Jordi, and Damià Pons. 2001. Catalan, Language of Europe. Generalitat de Catalunya, Department de Cultura. Govern de les Illes Balears, Conselleria d'Educació i Cultura.
^Institut d'Estudis Catalans."Resultats de la consulta: valencià".DIEC 2 (in Valencian). Retrieved23 February 2016.2 6 m. [FL] Al País Valencià, llengua catalana.
^abBaròmetre d'abril 2014(PDF) (Report). Presidència de la Generalitat Valenciana. 2014. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 5 April 2016. Retrieved29 January 2018.
^abLacreu i Cuesta, Josep (2002), "Valencian",Manual d'ús de l'estàndard oral [Manual for the use of the oral standard] (6th ed.), Valencia: Universitat de València, pp. 40–4,ISBN84-370-5390-0.
^Agulló Calatayud, Vicent (2011)."Análisis de la realidad sociolingüística del valenciano".Papers: Revista de Sociologia.96 (2):512–513.doi:10.5565/rev/papers/v96n2.149.hdl:10550/37211. Retrieved15 October 2023.Upon carrying out a binomial logistic regression analysis in order to set a prediction model for the probability that an individual from the Valencian Country be in favor of linguistic unity [...] age, sex, size of the municipality and employment status are left out, for they do not establish relations with the variable of the study. The significant variables of the model are, according toWald test and ordered by importance, ideology, level of studies, province and ethno-territorial identity. [...] The more on the left-wing people are, the more in favor of linguistic unity [...] The higher the level [of studies], the more in favor of linguistic unity. [...] Living inAlicante make a significative impact against linguistic unity of Valencian when compared toValencia and, specially,Castellón [...] The greater the sentiment of "Valencianness", the more in favor of linguistic unity.
Beltran i Calvo, Vicent (2000),El parlar de la Marina Alta: El contacte interdialectal valencianobalear (in Valencian), Valencia: Departament de Filologia Catalana. Universitat d'Alacant
Beltran i Calvo, Vicent (2005),El parlar de la Marina Alta: Microatles lingüístic de la Marina Alta (in Valencian), Valencia: Departament de Filologia Catalana. Universitat d'Alacant
Beltran i Calvo, Vicent; Segura i Llopes, Carles (2018),Els parlars valencians (2 ed.), Valencia: Publicacions Universitat de València,ISBN978-84-9134-240-3
Colomina i Castanyer, Jordi (1995),Els valencians i la llengua normativa, Alicante: Textos universitaris. Institut de Cultura "Juan Gil-Albert",ISBN84-7784-178-0
Salvador i Gimeno, Carles (2001) [1963],Valencians i la llengua autòctona durant els segles XVI, XVII i XVIII, Valencia: Institució Alfons el Magnànim,ISBN84-370-5334-X.
Sanchis i Guarner, Manuel (1983),La llengua dels valencians, Valencia: Edicions 3i4,ISBN84-7502-082-8
Valor i Vives, Enric (1973),Curs mitjà de gramàtica catalana, referida especialment al País Valencià, Valencia: Grog Editions,ISBN84-85211-45-6
Veny, Joan (2007),Petit Atles lingüístic del domini català, vol. 1 & 2, Barcelona: Institut d'Estudis Catalans, p. 51,ISBN978-84-7283-942-7
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