Avalley is an elongated low area often running betweenhills ormountains and typically containing ariver orstream running from one end to the other. Most valleys are formed byerosion of the land surface by rivers or streams over a very long period. Some valleys are formed through erosion byglacial ice. These glaciers may remain present in valleys in high mountains or polar areas.
At lower latitudes and altitudes,glacially formed valleys may have been created or enlarged duringice ages but now are ice-free and occupied by streams or rivers. Indesert areas, valleys may be entirely dry or carry a watercourse only rarely. Inareas of limestone bedrock,dry valleys may result from drainage now taking placeunderground rather than at the surface.Rift valleys arise principally fromearth movements, rather than erosion. Many different types of valleys are described by geographers, using terms that may be global in use or else applied only locally.
Valleys are depressions in themorphology that slope in one direction along their entire length. They tend to be longer than wide and come in a variety of dimensions.[1] Valleys may arise through several different processes. Most commonly, they are created fromerosion over long periods bymoving water and are known as river valleys. The processes that alter the river valley surface includecorrasion,abrasion, pot-holing,corrosion, andweathering.[1]
Typically, small valleys containing streams feed into larger valleys which in turn feed into larger valleys again,[2] eventually reaching the ocean or perhaps aninternal drainage basin. In polar areas and at high altitudes, valleys may be eroded byglaciers; these typically have a U-shaped profile in cross-section,[3] in contrast to river valleys, which tend to have a V-shaped profile. Other valleys may arise principally through tectonic processes such asrifting. All three processes can contribute to the development of a valley over geological time. The flat (or relatively flat) portion of a valley between its sides is referred to as the valley floor. The valley floor is typically formed by river sediments and may be flanked byfluvial terraces.[4]
The valley of Halikko River inHalikko,FinlandValley of Palakaria River springing fromVitosha Mountain, seen in the background, inBulgaria
The development of a river valley is affected by the character of the bedrock oralluvium over which the river or stream flows, the elevational difference between its top and bottom, and the climate. Typically the flow will increase downstream and the gradient will decrease. In the upper valley, the stream will most effectively erode its bed throughcorrasion to produce a steep-sided V-shaped valley. The presence of more resistant rock bands, ofgeological faults,fractures, andfolds may determine the course of the stream and result in a twisting course withinterlocking spurs.
In the middle valley, as numerous streams have coalesced, the valley is typically wider, the flow slower and both erosion and deposition may take place. More lateral erosion takes place in the middle section of a river's course, as strong currents on the outside of its curve erode the bank. Conversely, deposition may take place on the inside of curves where the current is much slacker, the process leading to the river assuming ameandering character. In the lower valley, gradients are lowest, meanders may be much broader and a broaderfloodplain may result. Deposition dominates over erosion.[5][6] A typical river basin ordrainage basin will incorporate each of these different types of valleys.
Some sections of a stream or river valleys may have vertically incised their course to such an extent that the valley they occupy is best described as agorge,ravine, orcanyon. Rapid down-cutting may result from localized uplift of the land surface or rejuvenation of the watercourse as a result for example of a reduction in the base level to which the river is eroded, e.g. lowered global sea level during anice age. Suchrejuvenation may also result in the production ofriver terraces.[7]
A glaciated valley in theMount Hood Wilderness showing a characteristic U-shape, the bottom's rocky 'rubble' accretion and the broad shoulders
There are various forms of valleys associated with glaciation. True glacial valleys are those that have been cut by a glacier which may or may not still occupy the valley at the present day. Such valleys may also be known as glacial troughs. They typically have aU-shaped cross-section and are characteristic landforms of mountain areas where glaciation has occurred or continues to take place.[8] Thisparabola shape is caused by glacial erosion removing the contact surfaces with greatest resistance to flow, and the resulting section minimises friction.[9][10]
The uppermost part of a glacial valley frequently consists of one or more 'armchair-shaped' hollows, or 'cirques', excavated by the rotational movement downslope of a cirque glacier. During glacial periods, for example, thePleistocene ice ages, it is in these locations that glaciers initially form and then, as theice age proceeds, extend downhill through valleys that have previously been shaped by water rather than ice.Abrasion by rock material embedded within the moving glacial ice causes the widening and deepening of the valley to produce the characteristic U or trough shape with relatively steep, even vertical sides and a relatively flat bottom.
Interlocking spurs associated with the development of river valleys are preferentially eroded to producetruncated spurs, typical of glaciated mountain landscapes. The upper end of the trough below the ice-contributing cirques may be atrough-end.Valley steps (or 'rock steps') can result from differing erosion rates due to both the nature of the bedrock (hardness and jointing for example) and the power of the moving ice. In places, a rock basin may be excavated which may later be filled with water to form aribbon lake or else by sediments. Such features are found in coastal areas asfjords. The shape of the valley which results from all of these influences may only become visible upon the recession of the glacier that forms it.[11] A river or stream may remain in the valley; if it is smaller than one would expect given the size of its valley, it can be considered an example of amisfit stream.
A panoramic view of two merging U-shaped valleys inPirin mountain,Bulgaria
Other interesting glacially carved valleys include:
A tunnel valley is a large, long, U-shaped valley originally cut under the glacial ice near the margin of continental ice sheets such as that now covering Antarctica and formerly covering portions of all continents during past glacial ages.[12] Such valleys can be up to 100 km (62 mi) long, 4 km (2.5 mi) wide, and 400 m (1,300 ft) deep (its depth may vary along its length). Tunnel valleys were formed by subglacialwater erosion. They once served as subglacial drainage pathways carrying large volumes of meltwater. Their cross-sections exhibit steep-sided flanks similar to fjord walls, and their flat bottoms are typical of subglacial glacial erosion.
In northern Central Europe, the Scandinavian ice sheet during the various ice ages advanced slightly uphill against the lie of the land. As a result, its meltwaters flowed parallel to the ice margin to reach the North Sea basin, forming huge, flat valleys known asUrstromtäler. Unlike the other forms of glacial valleys, these were formed by glacial meltwaters.
Look from Paria View to a valley inBryce Canyon,Utah, with very striking shoulders
Depending on thetopography, therock types, and theclimate, a variety of transitional forms between V-, U- and plain[clarification needed] valleys can form. The floor or bottom of these valleys can be broad or narrow, but all valleys have a shoulder. The broader a mountain valley, the lower its shoulders are located in most cases. An important exception is canyons where the shoulder almost is near the top of the valley's slope. In the Alps – e.g. theTyroleanInn valley – the shoulders are quite low (100–200 meters above the bottom). Many villages are located here (esp. on the sunny side) because the climate is very mild: even in winter when the valley's floor is filled with fog, these villages are insunshine.
A hanging valley is atributary valley that is higher than the main valley. They are most commonly associated with U-shaped valleys, where a tributary glacier flows into a glacier of larger volume. The main glacier erodes a deep U-shaped valley with nearly vertical sides, while the tributary glacier, with a smaller volume of ice, makes a shallower U-shaped valley. Since the surfaces of the glaciers were originally at the sameelevation, the shallower valley appears to be 'hanging' above the main valley. Often, waterfalls form at or near the outlet of the upper valley.[13]
Hanging valleys also occur infjord systems underwater. The branches ofSognefjord are much shallower than the main fjord. The mouth ofFjærlandsfjord is about 400 meters (1,300 ft) deep while the main fjord nearby is 1,200 meters (3,900 ft) deep. The mouth ofIkjefjord is only 50 meters (160 ft) deep while the main fjord is around 1,300 meters (4,300 ft) at the same point.[14]
Glaciated terrain is not the only site of hanging streams and valleys. Hanging valleys are also simply the product of varying rates of erosion of the main valley and the tributary valleys. The varying rates of erosion are associated with the composition of the adjacent rocks in the different valley locations. The tributary valleys are eroded and deepened by glaciers or erosion at a slower rate than that of the main valley floor; thus the difference in the two valleys' depth increases over time. The tributary valley, composed of more resistant rock, then hangs over the main valley.[15]
Trough-shaped valleys also form in regions of heavy topographicdenudation. By contrast with glacial U-shaped valleys, there is less downward and sideways erosion. The severe downslope denudation results in gently sloping valley sides; their transition to the actual valley bottom is unclear. Trough-shaped valleys occur mainly inperiglacial regions and intropical regions of variable wetness. Both climates are dominated by heavy denudation.[16]
Box valleys have wide, relatively level floors and steep sides. They are common in periglacial areas and occur in mid-latitudes, but also occur in tropical and arid regions.[17]
Rift valleys, such as theAlbertine Rift andGregory Rift are formed by the expansion of theEarth's crust due totectonic activity beneath the Earth's surface.
The termscorrie,glen, andstrath are allAnglicisations ofGaelic terms and are commonly encountered in place-names inScotland and other areas where Gaelic was once widespread. Strath signifies a wide valley between hills, the floor of which is either level or slopes gently.[19] A glen is a river valley which is steeper and narrower than a strath.[20] A corrie is a basin-shaped hollow in a mountain.[21] Each of these terms also occurs in parts of the world formerlycolonized by Britain.Corrie is used more widely by geographers as a synonym for (glacial)cirque, as is the wordcwm borrowed fromWelsh.[22]
The worddale occurs widely in place names in the north of England and, to a lesser extent, in southern Scotland. As a generic name for a type of valley,the term typically refers to a wide valley, though there are many much smaller stream valleys within theYorkshire Dales which are named "(specific name) Dale".[23]Clough is a word in common use in northern England for a narrow valley with steep sides.[24]Gill is used to describe a ravine containing a mountain stream inCumbria and thePennines.[25] The termcombe (also encountered ascoombe) is widespread in southern England and describes a short valley set into a hillside.[26] Other terms for small valleys such as hope, dean, slade, slack and bottom are commonly encountered in place-names in various parts of England but are no longer in general use as synonyms forvalley.
The term vale is used in England and Wales to describe a wide river valley, usually with a particularly wideflood plain or flat valley bottom. In Southern England, vales commonly occur between the outcrops of different relatively erosion-resistant rock formations, where lessresistant rock, oftenclaystone has been eroded. An example is theVale of White Horse in Oxfordshire.
Some of the first humancomplex societies originated in river valleys, such as that of theNile,Tigris-Euphrates,Indus,Ganges,Yangtze,Yellow River,Mississippi, and arguably theAmazon. Inprehistory, the rivers were used as a source offresh water and food (fish and game), as well as a place to wash and a sewer. The proximity of water moderatedtemperature extremes and provided a source forirrigation, stimulating the development ofagriculture. Most of thefirst civilizations developed from these river valley communities. Siting of settlements within valleys is influenced by many factors, including the need to avoid flooding and the location of river crossing points.
Numerous elongate depressions have been identified on the surface ofMars,Venus, theMoon, and otherplanets and their satellites and are known asvalles (singular: 'vallis'). Deeper valleys with steeper sides (akin to canyons) on certain of these bodies are known aschasmata (singular: 'chasma'). Long narrow depressions are referred to asfossae (singular: 'fossa').[27] These are theLatin terms for 'valley, 'gorge' and 'ditch' respectively. The German term 'rille' or Latin term 'rima' (signifying 'cleft') is used for certain other elongate depressions on the Moon.[28]
^Schumm, Stanley A.; Ethridge, Frank G. "Origin, Evolution and Morphology of Fluvial Valleys". In Dalrymple, Robert W.; Boyd, Ron; Zaitlin, Brian A. (eds.).Incised-Valley Systems: Origin and Sedimentary Sequences. Vol. 51. SEPM Society for Sedimentary Geology.doi:10.2110/pec.94.12.0011.
^Hirano, Masasgige; Aniya, Masamu (December 1988). "A rational explanation of cross-profile morphology for glacial valleys and of glacial valley development".Earth Surface Processes and Landforms. Wiley Online Library.13 (8):707–716.doi:10.1002/esp.3290130805.
^Graf, William L. (Autumn 1970). "The Geomorphology of the Glacial Valley Cross Section".Arctic and Alpine Research.2 (4). Taylor & Francis, Ltd.:303–312.doi:10.2307/1550243.JSTOR1550243.
^Monkhouse, F.J. (1971).Principles of Physical Geography (Seventh ed.). London: University of London Press Ltd. pp. 230–234.ISBN0340090227.
^Jørgensen, Flemming; Sandersen, Peter B. E. (June 2006). "Buried and open tunnel valleys in Denmark—erosion beneath multiple ice sheets".Quaternary Science Reviews.25 (11–12):1339–1363.Bibcode:2006QSRv...25.1339J.doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2005.11.006.
^"Early History, Santa Clara County".National Park Service. Archived fromthe original on July 3, 2007. RetrievedJanuary 16, 2015.Santa Clara Valley is a structural valley, created by mountain building, as opposed to an erosional valley, or one which has undergone the wearing away of the earth's surface by natural agents.
^Ross, David (2001).Scottish Place-names (First ed.). Edinburgh: Birlinn. p. 203.ISBN1841581739.
^Ross, David (2001).Scottish Place-names (First ed.). Edinburgh: Birlinn. p. 99.ISBN1841581739.
^Ross, David (2001).Scottish Place-names (First ed.). Edinburgh: Birlinn. p. 53.ISBN1841581739.
^Whitten, D.G.A.; Brooks, J.R.V. (1972).Dictionary of Geology (First ed.). London: Penguin. p. 83.ISBN0140510494.
^"Bing maps". Microsoft Bing. Retrieved20 December 2020.
^Gelling, Margaret (1984).Place-names in the Landscape: the Geographical roots of Britain's place-names (First ed.). London: J M Dent. p. 88.ISBN0460860860.
^Gelling, Margaret (1984).Place-names in the Landscape: the Geographical roots of Britain's place-names (First ed.). London: J M Dent. p. 99.ISBN0460860860.
