Gouvernement militaire de l'armée des États-Unis en France United States Army Military Government in France | |
|---|---|
| Administrative center | France |
| Official languages | English, French |
| Type | Military governance organization |
| Membership | United States,United Kingdom |
| Leaders | |
• Key Leader | Franklin D. Roosevelt |
• Opposition Leader | Charles de Gaulle |
| Establishment | 1944 |
• Proposed establishment | 1944 |
Joint plan by theUnited States andUnited Kingdom for post-liberation governance of France | |
TheUnited States ArmyMilitary Government inFrance (in French:gouvernement militaire de l'armée des États-Unis en France, and in English:Allied Military Government of Occupied Territories orAMGOT), was an organization jointly created by theUnited States and theUnited Kingdom to administerFrance after theLiberation. This project was thwarted by theProvisional Government of the French Republic led byCharles de Gaulle.
TheSecond World War caused the collapse of several European governments. From the moment they joined the war, the United States initiated plans for military administrations in fallen nations.
AMGOT was deployed at the end of the war inItaly, under the leadership ofHarold Alexander.[1]
President Roosevelt and his administration drafted several plans to reshape European politics after the war. Roosevelt proposed toAnthony Eden the creation of a new state calledWallonia, which involved removingAlsace-Lorraine and parts ofHauts-de-France from France to give them to Belgium.[2] This plan was ultimately abandoned.
A more ambitious plan for a pro-American military government in France was devised.[3] Roosevelt believed that France controlled strategic points in Europe,French Africa, and China, which the United States needed to secure. AsDwight D. Eisenhower noted inCrusade in Europe: "Roosevelt was very pessimistic about whether France would regain its former prestige and power in Europe. Consequently, he was concerned with ensuring control over certain strategic points of the French Empire, which he thought the French might no longer be able to maintain."[4]
In November 1942, Roosevelt hadMark Wayne Clark sign theClark-Darlan Agreements, which placed territories of theFrench colonial empire under American occupation. When de Gaulle sentAndré Philip to Washington to declare thatFree France would not tolerate U.S. administration of French territories, Roosevelt revealed the military occupation plan for mainland France: "When we enter France, we will exercise the rights of an occupying power... The Americans will remain in France until free elections are organized... I will speak to the French people on the radio, and they will do what I want."[5] Philip warned Roosevelt that de Gaulle would oppose this plan.[6]
In a memorandum dated May 8, 1943, Roosevelt wrote toWinston Churchill: "I am inclined to think that when we get into France, we will have to regard our action as that of a military occupation run by British and American generals... The most important positions, the national administration, must remain in the hands of the British or American commander-in-chief. This will be necessary, I think, for six months or even a year, the time needed to organize elections and a new form of government."[3]
Roosevelt proposed an action plan in which British and American generals would rely on Frenchpréfets anddepartments.[7] The United States and the United Kingdom established specialized training schools, such as atColumbia University, to prepare those who would govern the military occupations.[6] Training materials and courses were prepared not only forGermany andJapan but also for France, including its political and administrative structure.[3]
Franc notes were printed by theFederal Reserve.[8] They were distributed beginning with theNormandy landings and were well received by the population.[9] According toClaude Hettier de Boislambert, the American operation aimed to place France under complete dependency: officers would have replaced mayors, municipal budgets would have been managed by the liberators, as well as communication and railway systems.[10] HistorianCharles-Louis Foulon, who worked for de Gaulle, asserted that the Americans would have implemented Allied tribunals in France.[11]
DuringOperation Torch in 1943 Allied forces liberated large parts ofFrench North Africa and reachedan agreement with the commander ofVichy forces in North Africa,François Darlan giving American forces a large amount of control over liberated French territory in North Africa.
Prior to the agreement, Charles de Gaulle had refrained from directly opposing President Roosevelt. Upon learning of the agreement's contents, de Gaulle sentAndré Philip to meet Roosevelt inWashington, D.C. on November 20, 1942 to conveyFree France's opposition to the new occupation.[5]
Roosevelt revealed his plan for aUnited States Army Military Government in France following theLiberation of France: "When we enter France, we will exercise the rights of an occupying power... The Americans will remain in France until free elections are organized." Philip retorted, "If the Americans come to occupy the country, their occupation will be no more tolerated than the German occupation." Roosevelt responded, "I will speak to the French people on the radio, and they will do what I want."[5]
Charles de Gaulle wrote in hisWar Memoirs that he was aware of AMGOT’s plans to fully administer the state and embed a lasting American influence, and opposed it accordingly.[12] He was reportedly informed through intelligence provided byPhilippe Thyraud de Vosjoli, sourced fromNorth Africa.[13]
According toDiane de Bellescize, the creation of theProvisional Government of the French Republic was specifically aimed at forming a legally recognized entity to oppose AMGOT. Its creation was driven by a dual objective: preventing anarchy—perceived as benefiting communists—and blocking AMGOT.[14] Thus, before the Normandy landings, President Roosevelt ordered General Eisenhower to avoid any actions suggesting that the administration officially recognized the provisional government as legitimate.[15]
There was a belief in the administration, particularly shared by Roosevelt, that De Gaulle was unpopular within France. De Gaulle went toBayeux on June 14 a little over a week after the landings. Although Bayeux was a small town of 15,000 it was to that point the largest liberated town in France. Here he madea speech that established that he was popular even with the people of Bayeux, who were seen as naturally pro-Vichy and also establishedFrançois Coulet as the firstCommissioner of the Republic representing the Provisional Government in Bayeux and administering the liberated area, setting a pattern that would continue through the liberation.[16]
Michel Debré played a key role in organizing, during June 1944, the replacement of Vichy-appointedpréfets withCommissaires de la République, who had legitimacy from the Resistance. This allowed the Resistance to take control and prevented the United States from appointing individuals outside the Resistance.[6]
André Gros, a member of de Gaulle’s cabinet and negotiator with the Americans, wrote that the AMGOT plan was halted by de Gaulle within ten days, between June 4 and June 14, 1944.[17]
GeneralDe Gaulle said concerning AMGOT and the Normandy landings:
The landing of June 6 was the Anglo-Saxon affair, from which France was excluded. They were determined to establish themselves in France as if they were enemy territory! As they had just done in Italy and as they were preparing to do in Germany! They had prepared their AMGOT, which was to govern France sovereignly as their armies advanced. They had printed their counterfeit money, which would have been legal tender. They would have behaved like conquered countries. This is exactly what would have happened if I had not imposed, yes imposed, my commissioners of the Republic, my prefects, my sub-prefects, my liberation committees! And you would have me go and commemorate their landing, when it was the prelude to a second occupation of the country? No, no, don't count on me! I'm happy for things to go smoothly, but my place is not there ![18]
Broadly, the British obtained assurances from the Americans that AMGOT would not apply to "liberated countries with recognized governments." The United Kingdom had recognized de Gaulle as the leader of France since theFall of France in July 1940. Americans and British disagreed on whether it was necessary to recognize a legitimate French government under de Gaulle.[6]
The British government at times opposed the project.Anthony Eden, the United Kingdom’sForeign Secretary, visited Roosevelt in March 1943 and opposed the AMGOT project. He later wrote: "I could not agree with a new American proposal, which was that the Allied forces landing in France should administer the country. It seemed to me that Roosevelt wanted to hold France’s future in his hands to decide the country’s fate. I didn’t like that, and preferred that we work with a French civil authority as soon as possible."[19] In his journal entry of March 4, 1944, Eden noted that the British would be "foolish to follow Roosevelt, blinded by his absurd and petty aversion to de Gaulle."[6]
The plans to dismember France and then occupy the country also faced opposition in the United States. American media, for instance, were pro-Gaullist and, although unaware of Roosevelt’s plan, regarded de Gaulle as the legitimate leader of France.[6]
Dwight D. Eisenhower opposed the president’s project, unable to comprehend Roosevelt’s animosity and pettiness toward the French general.[6] He influenced Roosevelt in 1944 through telegrams encouraging recognition of de Gaulle as the sole legitimate leader. On June 3, he wrote: "All our intelligence leads us to believe that the only authority resistance groups wish to recognize is that of De Gaulle and his committee... He controls the only military forces capable of participating in the operation. Consequently, from a purely military perspective... we are obliged to deal with him if we want to ensure maximum support from the French, both within and outside the country."[5]
As the firstPresident of the Fifth Republic, Charles de Gaulle refused to commemorate the Normandy landings. He explained this decision toAlain Peyrefitte, referencing the planned military occupation: "The June 6 landing was an Anglo-Saxon affair, from which France was excluded. They were determined to occupy France as enemy territory! Just as they had done in Italy and planned to do in Germany! They had prepared their AMGOT, which was to govern France sovereignly as their armies advanced. They had printed their counterfeit money, which would have been legal tender. They would have acted as in a conquered country... And you want me to commemorate this landing, which was the prelude to a second occupation of the country?"[20]
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