This article uses theIPA to transcribeIrish. Readers familiar with other conventions may wish to seeHelp:IPA/Irish for a comparison of the IPA system with those used in learners' materials.
Ulster Irish (endonym:Gaeilg Uladh orIrish:Gaeilic Uladh,Standard Irish:Gaeilge Uladh) is the variety ofIrish spoken in theprovince ofUlster. It has much in common withScottish Gaelic andManx. Within Ulster there have historically been two main sub-dialects: West Ulster and East Ulster. The Western dialect is spoken in parts ofCounty Donegal and was once spoken in parts of neighbouring counties, hence the name 'Donegal Irish'. The Eastern dialect was spoken in most of the rest of Ulster and northern parts of countiesLouth andMeath.[1]
Ulster Irish was the main language spoken in most ofUlster from the earliest recorded times even before Ireland became a jurisdiction in the 1300s. Since thePlantation, Ulster Irish was steadily replaced by English andUlster Scots, largely as a result of incoming settlers. The Eastern dialect died out in the 20th century, but the Western lives on in theGaeltacht region of County Donegal. In 1808,County Down natives William Neilson and Patrick Lynch (Pádraig Ó Loingsigh) published a detailed study on Ulster Irish. Both Neilson and his father were Ulster-speakingPresbyterian ministers. When the recommendations of the first Comisiún na Gaeltachta were drawn up in 1926, there were regions qualifying for Gaeltacht recognition in theSperrins and the northernGlens of Antrim andRathlin Island. The report also makes note of small pockets of Irish speakers in northwestCounty Cavan, southeastCounty Monaghan, and the far south ofCounty Armagh. However, these small pockets vanished early in the 20th century while Ulster Irish in the Sperrins survived until the 1950s and in the Glens of Antrim until the 1970s. The last native speaker of Rathlin Irish died in 1985.
The phonemic consonant inventory of Ulster Irish (based on the dialect ofGweedore[3]) is as shown in the following chart (seeInternational Phonetic Alphabet for an explanation of the symbols). Symbols appearing in the upper half of each row arevelarized (traditionally called "broad" consonants) while those in the bottom half arepalatalized ("slender"). The consonants/h,n,l/ are neither broad nor slender.
Some characteristics of thephonology of Ulster Irish that distinguish it from the other dialects are:
/w/ is always theapproximant[w]. In other dialects,fricative[vˠ] is found instead of or in addition to[w]. No dialect makes aphonemic contrast between the approximant and the fricative, however.
There is a three-way distinction among coronal nasals,/n̪ˠ,n,ṉʲ/, and laterals,/l̪ˠ,l,ḻʲ/, as there is in Scottish Gaelic, and there is no lengthening or diphthongization of short vowels before these sounds and/m/. Thus, whileceann "head" is/cɑːn/ in Connacht and/caun/ in Munster, in Ulster it is/can̪ˠ/ (compare Scottish Gaelic/kʲaun̪ˠ/)
⟨n⟩ is pronounced as if it is spelled⟨r⟩ (/ɾˠ/ or/ɾʲ/) after consonants other than⟨s⟩. This happens in Connacht and Scottish Gaelic as well.
/x/ is often realised as[h] and can completely disappear word finally, hence unstressed -⟨ach⟩ (a common suffix) is realised as[ax],[ah], or[a]. For some speakers/xt/ is realised as[ɾˠt].[citation needed]
Thevowels of Ulster Irish are as shown on the following chart. These positions are only approximate, as vowels are strongly influenced by the palatalization and velarization of surrounding consonants.
The vowels transcribed⟨æː, ʌ, ɤ, ɔː⟩ correspond to/aː,ɔ,ʊ,oː/ respectively
Before/x/, where an unstressed schwa is found in other dialects, Ulster has[a] with secondary stress (identical to/aː/), e.g.feargach/ˈfʲaɾˠəɡa(x)/ "angry" andiománaíocht/ˈɔmˠaːnˠiaxt̪ˠ/ "hurling".
/aː/ is morefronted in Ulster than Connacht and Munster (where it is[ɑː]), as[aː] or even[æː~ɛ̞ː] preceding slender consonants. Unstressed⟨eoi⟩ and⟨ói⟩ merge with⟨ái⟩ as/aː/ ([æ~ɛ̞]).
Stressed word final⟨(e)aith⟩,⟨oith⟩, and/ah,ɔh/ preceding a syllable containing/iː/ tend to represent/əih/. For example/mˠəih/maith "good" and/ˈkəihiːɾʲ/cathaoir "chair", in contrast to/mˠah/ and/ˈkahiːɾʲ/ found in other regions.
Stressed⟨(e)adh(a(i))⟩,⟨(e)agh(a(i))⟩, as well as⟨ia⟩ after an initial⟨r⟩, represent/ɤː/ which generally merges with/eː/ in younger speech.
/eː/ has three main allophones:[eː]morpheme finally and after broad consonants,[ɛə] before broad consonants,[ei] before slender consonants.
Stressed⟨eidh(e(a))⟩ and⟨eigh(e(a))⟩ represent/eː/ rather than/əi/ which is found in the other dialects.
/iː/ before broad consonants merges with/iə/, and vice versa. That is,/iə/ merges with/iː/ before slender consonants.
⟨ao⟩ represents[ɯː] for many speakers, but it often merges with/iː/ especially in younger speech.
⟨eo(i)⟩ and⟨ó(i)⟩ are pronounced[ɔː], unless beside⟨m, mh, n⟩ where they raise to[oː], the main realisation in other dialects, e.g./fˠoːnˠˈpˠɔːkə/fón póca "mobile phone".
Stressed⟨(e)abha(i)⟩,⟨(e)obh(a(i))⟩,⟨(e)odh(a(i))⟩ and⟨(e)ogh(a(i))⟩ mainly represent[oː], not/əu/ as in the other dialects.
Word final unstressed⟨(e)adh⟩ represents/uː/, not/ə/ as in the other dialects,[4] e.g./ˈsˠauɾˠuː/ forsamhradh "summer".
Word final/əw/⟨bh, (e)abh, mh, (e)amh⟩ and/əj/⟨(a)idh, (a)igh⟩ merge with/uː/ and/iː/, respectively, e.g./ˈl̠ʲanˠuː/leanbh "baby",/ˈdʲaːnˠuː/déanamh "make",/ˈsˠauɾˠiː/samhraidh "summer (gen.)" and/ˈbˠalʲiː/bailigh "collect". Both merge with/ə/ in Connacht, while in Munster, they are realised[əvˠ] and[əɟ], respectively.
According to Ó Dochartaigh (1987), the loss of finalschwa "is a well-attested feature of Ulster Irish", e.g.[fˠad̪ˠ] for/fˠad̪ˠə/fada "long".[5]
Differences between the Western and Eastern sub-dialects of Ulster included the following:
In West Ulster and most of Ireland, the vowel written⟨ea⟩ is pronounced[a] (e.g.fear[fʲaɾˠ]), but in East Ulster it was pronounced[ɛ] (e.g.fear/fʲɛɾˠ/ as it is in Scottish Gaelic (/fɛɾ/). J. J. Kneen comments that Scottish Gaelic and Manx generally follow the East Ulster pronunciation. The nameSeán is pronounced[ʃɑːnˠ] in Munster and[ʃæːnˠ] in West Ulster, but[ʃeːnˠ] in East Ulster, whence anglicized spellings likeShane O'Neill andGlenshane.[1]
In East Ulster,⟨th, ch⟩ in the middle of a word tended to vanish and leave one long syllable. William Neilson wrote that this happens "in most of the counties of Ulster, and the east ofLeinster".[1]
Neilson wrote/w/ was[vˠ], especially at the beginning or end of a word "is still retained in the North of Ireland, as in Scotland, and the Isle of Man", whereas "throughout Connaught, Leinster and some counties of Ulster, the sound of[w] is substituted". However, broad⟨bh, mh⟩ may become[w] in the middle of a word (for example inleabhar "book").[1]
Ulster Irish has the same twoinitial mutations, lenition and eclipsis, as the other two dialects and the standard language, and mostly uses them the same way. There is, however, one exception: in Ulster, adative singularnoun after thedefinite article is lenited (e.g.ar an chrann "on the tree") (as is the case in Scottish and Manx), whereas in Connacht and Munster, it is eclipsed (ar an gcrann), except in the case ofden,don andinsan, where lenition occurs in literary language. Both possibilities are allowed for in the standard language.
Irish verbs are characterized by having a mixture ofanalytic forms (where information aboutperson is provided by apronoun) andsynthetic forms (where information about number is provided in an ending on the verb) in their conjugation. In Ulster and North Connacht the analytic forms are used in a variety of forms where the standard language has synthetic forms, e.g.molann muid "we praise" (standardmolaimid,muid being a back formation from the verbal ending-mid and not found in the Munster dialect, which retainssinn as the first person plural pronoun as do Scottish Gaelic and Manx) ormholfadh siad "they would praise" (standardmholfaidís). The synthetic forms, including those no longer emphasised in the standard language, may be used in short answers to questions.
The 2nd conjugation future stem suffix in Ulster is-óch- (pronounced[ah]) rather than-ó-, e.g.beannóchaidh mé[bʲan̪ˠahəmʲə] "I will bless" (standardbeannóidh mé[bʲanoːjmʲeː]).
Some irregular verbs have different forms in Ulster from those in the standard language. For example:
(gh)níom (independent form only) "I do, make" (standarddéanaim) andrinn mé "I did, made" (standardrinne mé)
tchíom[t̠ʲʃiːm] (independent form only) "I see" (standardfeicim, Southernchím,cím (independent form only))
bheiream "I give" (standardtugaim, southernbheirim (independent only)),ní thabhram orní thugaim "I do not give" (standard onlyní thugaim), andbhéarfaidh mé/bheirfidh mé "I will give" (standardtabharfaidh mé, southernbhéarfad(independent form only))
gheibhim (independent form only) "I get" (standardfaighim),ní fhaighim "I do not get"
abraim "I say, speak" (standarddeirim,ní abraim "I do not say, speak", althoughdeir is used to mean "I say" in a more general sense.)
In Ulster thenegativeparticlecha (before a vowelchan, in past tenseschar - Scottish Gaelic/Manxchan,cha do) is sometimes used where other dialects usení andníor. The form is more common in the north of the Donegal Gaeltacht.Cha cannot be followed by the future tense: where it has a future meaning, it is followed by the habitual present.[6][7] It triggers a "mixed mutation":/t/ and/d/ are eclipsed, while other consonants are lenited. In some dialects however (Gweedore),cha eclipses all consonants, except b- in the forms of the verb "to be", and sometimes f-:
Ulster
Standard
English
Cha dtuigim
Ní thuigim
"I don't understand"
Chan fhuil sé/Cha bhfuil sé
Níl sé (contracted fromní fhuil sé)
"He isn't"
Cha bhíonn sé
Ní bheidh sé
"He will not be"
Cha phógann muid/Cha bpógann muid
Ní phógaimid
"We do not kiss"
Chan ólfadh siad é
Ní ólfaidís é
"They wouldn't drink it"
Char thuig mé thú
Níor thuig mé thú
"I didn't understand you"
In the Past Tense, some irregular verbs are lenited/eclipsed in the Interrogative/Negative that differ from the standard, due to the various particles that may be preferred:
The Ulster dialect contains many words not used in other dialects—of which the main ones areConnacht Irish andMunster Irish—or used otherwise only in northeast Connacht. The standard form of written Irish is nowAn Caighdeán Oifigiúil. In other cases, a semantic shift has resulted in quite different meanings attaching to the same word in Ulster Irish and in other dialects. Some of these words include:
ag déanamh is used to mean "to think" as well as "to make" or "to do",síleann,ceapann andcuimhníonn is used in other dialects, as well as in Ulster Irish.
amharc oramhanc (West Ulster), "look" (elsewhereamharc,breathnaigh andféach; this latter means rather "try" or "attempt" in Ulster)
barúil "opinion", southerntuairim - in Ulster,tuairim is most typically used in the meaning "approximate value", such astuairim an ama sin "about that time". Note the typically Ulster derivativesbarúlach andinbharúla "of the opinion (that...)".
bealach,ród "road" (southern and westernbóthar andród (cf. Scottish Gaelicrathad, Manxraad), andbealach "way"). Note thatbealach alone is used as a preposition meaning "towards" (literally meaning "in the way of":d'amharc sé bealach na farraige = "he looked towards the sea"). In the sense "road", Ulster Irish often usesbealach mór (lit. "big road") even for roads that aren't particularly big or wide.
bomaite, "minute" (elsewherenóiméad,nóimint,neómat, etc., and in Mayo Gaeltacht areas a somewhat halfway version between the northern and southern versions, is the word "móiméad", also probably the original, from which the initial M diverged into a similar nasal N to the south, and into a similar bilabial B to the north.)
cluinim, "I hear" (southerncloisim, butcluinim is also attested in South Tipperary and is also used in Achill and Erris in North and West Mayo). In fact, the initialc- tends to be lenited even when it is not preceded by any particle (this is because therewas a leniting particle in Classical Irish:do-chluin yieldedchluin in Ulster)
doiligh, "hard"-as in difficult (southerndeacair),crua "tough"
druid, "close" (southern and westerndún; in other dialectsdruid means "to move in relation to or away from something", thusdruid ó rud = to shirk,druid isteach = to close in) although druid is also used in Achill and Erris
eallach, "cattle" (southernbeithíoch = "one head of cattle",beithígh = "cattle", "beasts")
eiteogaí, "wings" (southernsciatháin)
fá, "about, under" (standardfaoi, Munsterfé,fí andfá is only used for "under";mar gheall ar andi dtaobh = "about";fá dtaobh de = "about" or "with regard to")
falsa, "lazy" (southern and westernleisciúil,fallsa = "false, treacherous") although falsa is also used in Achill and Erris
faoileog, "seagull" (standardfaoileán)
fosta, "also" (standardfreisin)
Gaeilg,Gaeilig,Gaedhlag,Gaeilic, "Irish" (standard and WesternGaeilge, SouthernGaoluinn, ManxGaelg, Scottish GaelicGàidhlig) although Gaeilg is used in Achill and was used in parts of Erris and East Connacht
geafta, "gate" (standardgeata)
gairid, "short" (southerngearr)
gamhain, "calf" (southernlao andgamhain) although gamhain is also used in Achill and Erris
gasúr, "boy" (southerngarsún;garsún means "child" in Connemara)
inteacht, an adjective meaning "some" or "certain" is used instead of the southernéigin.Áirithe also means "certain" or "particular".
mothaím is used to mean "I hear, perceive" as well as "I feel" (standardcloisim) butmothaím generally refers to stories or events. The only other place where mothaím is used in this context is in the Irish of Dún Caocháin and Ceathrú Thaidhg in Erris but it was a common usage throughout most of northern and eastern Mayo, Sligo, Leitrim and North Roscommon
stócach, "youth", "young man", "boyfriend" (Southern = "gangly, young lad")
tábla, "table" (western and southernbord andclár, Scottish Gaelicbòrd)
tig liom is used to mean "I can" as opposed to the standardis féidir liom or the southerntá mé in ann.Tá mé ábalta is also a preferred Ulster variant. Tig liom and its derivatives are also commonly used in the Irish of Joyce Country, Achill and Erris
the wordiontach "wonderful" is used as an intensifier instead of the prefixan- used in other dialects.
Words generally associated with the now dead East Ulster Irish include:[1]
airigh (feel, hear, perceive) - but also known in more southern Irish dialects
ársuigh, more standardizedársaigh (tell) - but note the expressionag ársaí téamaí "telling stories, spinning yearns" used by the modern Ulster writerSéamus Ó Grianna.
coinfheascar (evening)
corruighe, more standardized spellingcorraí (anger)
frithir (sore)
go seadh (yet)
márt (cow)
práinn (hurry)
toigh (house)
tonnóg (duck)
In other cases, a semantic shift has resulted in quite different meanings attaching to the same word in Ulster Irish and in other dialects. Some of these words include:
cloigeann "head" (southern and westernceann; elsewhere,cloigeann is used to mean "skull")
capall "mare" (southern and westernláir; elsewhere,capall means "horse")
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——, ed. (2005).Faoi Scáth na Mucaise: Béaloideas Ghaeltachtaí Imeallacha Thír Chonaill (in Irish). Baile Átha Cliath: Coiscéim.
Ó Baoill, Dónall P., ed. (1992).Amach as Ucht na Sliabh (in Irish). Vol. 1. Cumann Staire agus Seanchais Ghaoth Dobhair.
——, ed. (1996).Amach as Ucht na Sliabh (in Irish). Vol. 2. Cumann Staire agus Seanchais Ghaoth Dobhair i gcomhar le Comharchumann Forbartha Ghaoth Dobhair. [folklore, Gweedore] [folklore, Gweedore]
Ó Baoill, Micí Sheáin Néill (1956). Mag Uidhir, Seosamh (ed.).Maith Thú, A Mhicí (in Irish). Béal Feirste: Irish News Teoranta. [folklore, Rannafast]
Ó Baoill, Micí Sheáin Néill (1983). Ó Searcaigh, Lorcán (ed.).Lá De na Laethaibh (in Irish). Muineachán: Cló Oirghialla. [folklore, Rannafast]
Ó Colm, Eoghan (1971).Toraigh na dTonn (in Irish). Baile Átha Cliath: Foilseacháin Náisiúnta Teoranta. [memoirs and local history, Tory Island/Magheroarty]
Ó Cuinn, Cosslett (1990). Ó Canainn, Aodh; Watson, Seosamh (eds.).Scian A Caitheadh le Toinn : Scéalta agus amhráin as Inis Eoghain agus cuimhne ar Ghaeltacht Iorrais (in Irish). Baile Átha Cliath: Coiscéim. [folklore, Tír Eoghain]
Ó Donaill, Eoghan (1940).Scéal Hiúdaí Sheáinín (in Irish). Baile Átha Cliath: Oifig an tSoláthair. [biography, folklore, the Rosses]
Ó Donaill, Niall (1942).Seanchas na Féinne (in Irish). Baile Átha Cliath: Oifig an tSoláthair. [mythology, the Rosses]
—— (1974).Na Glúnta Rosannacha (in Irish). Baile Átha Cliath: Oifig an tSoláthair. [local history, the Rosses]
Ó Duibheannaigh, John Ghráinne (2008).An áit a n-ólann an t-uan an bainne (in Irish). Béal Feirste: Cló na Seaneagliase.ISBN978-0-9558388-0-4. [Rannafast] (book & 1 CD in the Ulster dialect)
Ó Gallachóir, Pádraig (2008).Seachrán na Mic Uí gCorra (in Irish). Baile Átha Cliath: Coiscéim. [novel]
Ó Gallchóir, Tomás (1996).Séimidh agus Scéalta Eile (in Irish). Baile Átha Cliath: Coiscéim. [the Rosses]
Ó Grianna, Séamus (1924).Caisleáin Óir (in Irish). Sráid Bhaile Dúin Dealgan: Preas Dhún Dealgan. [novel, the Rosses]
—— (1942).Nuair a Bhí Mé Óg (in Irish). Baile Átha Cliath: Clólucht an Talbóidigh. [autobiography, the Rosses]
—— (1961).Cúl le Muir agus Scéalta Eile (in Irish). Baile Átha Cliath: Oifig an tSoláthair. [short stories, the Rosses]
—— (1968).An Sean-Teach (in Irish). Baile Átha Cliath: Oifig an tSoláthair. [novel, the Rosses]
—— (1976).Cith is Dealán (in Irish). Corcaigh: Cló Mercier. [short stories the Rosses]
—— (1983).Tairngreacht Mhiseoige (in Irish). Baile Átha Cliath: An Gúm. [novel, the Rosses]
—— (1993).Cora Cinniúna (in Irish). Baile Átha Cliath: An Gúm.ISBN1-85791-0737. [short stories, the Rosses]
—— (2002). Mac Congáil, Nollaig (ed.).Castar na Daoine ar a Chéile. Scríbhinní Mháire (in Irish). Vol. 1. Baile Átha Cliath: Coiscéim. [novel, the Rosses]
—— (2003). — (ed.).Na Blianta Corracha. Scríbhinní Mháire (in Irish). Vol. 2. Baile Átha Cliath: Coiscéim. [the Rosses]
Ó Laighin, Donnchadh C. (2004).An Bealach go Dún Ulún (in Irish). Baile Átha Cliath: Coiscéim.ISBN978-1-9024208-2-0. [Kilcar]
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