Ulaanbaatar[b] is thecapital andmost populous city ofMongolia. It has a population of 1.6 million, and it is the coldest capital city in the world by average yearly temperature.[5] The municipality is located in north central Mongolia at an elevation of about 1,300 metres (4,300 ft) in a valley on theTuul River. The city was founded in 1639 as a nomadicBuddhist monastic centre, changing location 29 times, and was permanently settled at its modern location in 1778.
Governed as anindependent municipality, Ulaanbaatar is surrounded byTöv Province, whose capitalZuunmod lies 43 kilometres (27 mi) south of the city. With a population of just over 1.6 million as of December 2022[update], it contains almost half of the country's total population.[6] As the country'sprimate city, it serves as its cultural, industrial and financial heart and the center of itstransport network.[7]
The city at its establishment in 1639 was referred to asÖrgöö (Mongolian:ᠥᠷᠭᠦᠭᠡ; Өргөө,lit. 'Palace'). This name was eventually adapted asUrga[8] in the West. By 1651, it began to be referred to asNomiĭn Khüree (Mongolian:ᠨᠣᠮ ᠤᠨ ᠬᠦᠷᠢᠶᠡᠨ; Номын хүрээ,lit. 'Khüree of Wisdom'), and by 1706 it was referred to asIkh Khüree (Mongolian:ᠶᠡᠬᠡ ᠬᠦᠷᠢᠶᠡᠨ; Их хүрээ,lit. 'Great Khüree'). The Chinese equivalent,Dà Kùlún (Chinese:大庫倫,Mongolian:Да Хүрээ), was rendered into Western languages asKulun orKuren.
Other names includeBogdiin Khuree (Mongolian:ᠪᠣᠭᠳᠠ ᠶᠢᠨ ᠬᠦᠷᠢᠶᠡᠨ; Богдын хүрээ,lit. 'TheBogd's Khüree'), or simplyKhüree (Mongolian:ᠬᠦᠷᠢᠶᠡᠨ; Хүрээ,romanized: Küriye), itself a term originally referring to anenclosure orsettlement.
Uponindependence in 1911, with both the secular government and theBogd Khan's palace present, the city's name was changed toNiĭslel Khüree (Mongolian:ᠨᠡᠶᠢᠰᠯᠡᠯ ᠬᠦᠷᠢᠶᠡᠨ; Нийслэл Хүрээ,lit. 'Capital Khüree').
Genghis Khan was a national hero, but he was a conqueror. Present-day People's Mongolia has no imperialistic goals; it wants to liberate itself and develop independently, along revolutionary lines. Therefore, the name Ulaanbaatar-Khoto will be a revolutionary name, and it will be understandable to everyone. The prefix Ulan ("red") gives this name a revolutionary character, symbolizing the revolutionary steadfastness of the Mongolian people in their struggle for independence.
In the Western world, Ulaanbaatar continued to be generally known as Urga or Khuree until 1924, and afterward as Ulan Bator (Russian:Улан-Батор,romanized: Ulan-Bator). This form was defined two decades before the Mongolian name got its currentCyrillic spelling and transliteration (1941–1950); however, the name of the city was spelledUlaanbaatar koto during the decadein which Mongolia used the Latin alphabet.
Human habitation at the site of Ulaanbaatar dates from theLower Paleolithic, with a number of sites on theBogd Khan, Buyant-Ukhaa and Songinokhairkhan mountains, revealing tools which date from 300,000 years ago to 40,000–12,000 years ago. TheseUpper Paleolithic people huntedmammoth andwoolly rhinoceros, the bones of which are found abundantly around Ulaanbaatar.[citation needed]
Roof tiles recovered fromWang Khan's 12th-century palace in Ulaanbaatar
A number ofXiongnu-era royal tombs have been discovered around Ulaanbaatar, including the tombs of Belkh Gorge near Dambadarjaalin monastery and tombs of Songinokhairkhan. Located on the banks of theTuul River, Ulaanbaatar has been well within the sphere of Turco-Mongolnomadic empires throughout history.
Wang Khan, Toghrul of theKeraites, aNestorian Christian monarch whomMarco Polo identified as the legendaryPrester John, is said to have had his palace here (the Black Forest of the Tuul River) and forbade hunting in the holy mountain Bogd Uul. The palace is said to be whereGenghis Khan stayed with Yesui Khatun before attacking theTangut in 1226.[citation needed]
During theMongol Empire (1206–1368) andNorthern Yuan dynasty (1368–1635) the main, natural route from the capital region ofKarakorum to the birthplace and tomb of the Khans in the Khentii mountain region (Ikh Khorig) passed through the area of Ulaanbaatar. The Tuul River naturally leads to the north-side of Bogd Khan Mountain, which stands out as a large island of forest positioned conspicuously at the south-western edge of the Khentii mountains. As the main gate and stopover point on the route to and from the holy Khentii mountains, the Bogd Khan Mountain saw large amounts of traffic going past it and was protected from early times. Even after the Northern Yuan period it served as the location of the annual and triannual Assembly of Nobles (Khan Uuliin Chuulgan).
Founded in 1639 as ayurt monastery as Örgöö (lit.'palace-yurt'), the settlement was first located at Lake Shireet Tsagaan nuur (75 kilometres (47 miles) directly east of the imperial capital Karakorum) in what is nowBurd sum,Övörkhangai, around 230 kilometres (143 miles) south-west from the present site of Ulaanbaatar, and was intended by the Mongol nobles to be the seat ofZanabazar, the firstJebtsundamba Khutughtu. Zanabazar returned to Mongolia from Tibet in 1651, and founded sevenaimags (monastic departments) in Urga, later establishing four more.[9]
As a mobile monastery-town, Örgöö was often moved to various places along theSelenge,Orkhon and Tuul rivers, as supply and other needs would demand. During theDzungar wars of the late 17th century, it was even moved toInner Mongolia.[10] As the city grew, it moved less and less.[11]
The movements of the city can be detailed as follows: Shireet Tsagaan Nuur (1639), Khoshoo Tsaidam (1640), Khentii Mountains (1654), Ogoomor (1688), Inner Mongolia (1690), Tsetserlegiin Erdene Tolgoi (1700), Daagandel (1719), Usan Seer (1720), Ikh Tamir (1722), Jargalant (1723), Eeven Gol (1724), Khujirtbulan (1729), Burgaltai (1730), Sognogor (1732), Terelj (1733), Uliastai River (1734), Khui Mandal (1736), Khuntsal (1740), Udleg (1742), Ogoomor (1743), Selbe (1747), Uliastai River (1756), Selbe (1762), Khui Mandal (1772) and Selbe (1778).[citation needed]
In 1778, the city moved from Khui Mandal and settled for good at its current location, near the confluence of the Selbe and Tuul rivers, and beneathBogd Khan Uul, at that time also on the caravan route fromBeijing toKyakhta.[12]
One of the earliest Western mentions of Urga is the account of the Scottish travellerJohn Bell in 1721:
What they call the Urga is the court, or the place where the prince (Tusheet Khan) and high priest (Bogd Jebtsundamba Khutugtu) reside, who are always encamped at no great distance from one another. They have several thousand tents about them, which are removed from time to time. The Urga is much frequented by merchants from China and Russia, and other places.[13]
By Zanabazar's death in 1723, Urga was Mongolia's preeminent monastery in terms of religious authority. A council of seven of the highest-rankinglamas (Khamba Nomon Khan,Ded Khamba and fiveTsorj) made most of the city's religious decisions. It had also become Outer Mongolia's commercial center. From 1733 to 1778, Urga moved around the vicinity of its present location. In 1754, the Erdene Shanzodba Yam^ of Urga was given authority to supervise the administrative affairs of the Bogd's subjects. It also served as the city's chief judicial court. In 1758, the Qianlong Emperor appointed theKhalkha Vice General Sanzaidorj as the first Mongolamban of Urga, with full authority to "oversee the Khuree and administer well all theKhutugtu's subjects".[14]
In 1761, a second amban was appointed for the same purpose, aManchu one. A quarter-century later, in 1786, a decree issued in Peking gave right to the Urga ambans to decide the administrative affairs ofTusheet Khan and Setsen Khan territories. With this, Urga became the highest civil authority in the country. Based on Urga's Mongol governor Sanzaidorj's petition, theQianlong Emperor officially recognized an annual ceremony on Bogd Khan Mountain in 1778 and provided the annual imperial donations. The city was the seat of theJebtsundamba Khutuktus, twoQing ambans, and aChinese trade town grew "four trees" 4.24 km (2.63 mi) east of the city center at the confluence of the Uliastai and Tuul rivers.[citation needed]
Detail of 19th-century painting of Urga (Ulaanbaatar): in the center the movable square temple of Bat Tsagaan, built in 1654, besides numerous other temples
By 1778, Urga may have had as many as ten thousand monks, who were regulated by a monastic rule, Internal Rule of the Grand Monastery orYeke Kuriyen-u Doto'adu Durem. For example, in 1797 a decree of the 4th Jebtsundamba forbade "singing, playing with archery, myagman, chess, usury and smoking"). Executions were forbidden where the holy temples of the Bogd Jebtsundama could be seen, so capital punishment took place away from the city.[citation needed]
In 1839, the 5th Bogd Jebtsundamba moved his residence to Gandan Hill, an elevated position to the west of the Baruun Damnuurchin markets. Part of the city was moved to nearby Tolgoit. In 1855, the part of the camp that moved to Tolgoit was brought back to its 1778 location, and the 7th Bogd Jebtsundamba returned to the Zuun Khuree. TheGandan Monastery flourished as a center of philosophical studies.[citation needed]
The Russian Consulate of Urga (Ulaanbaatar) and the Holy Trinity Church, both built in 1863
Following theTreaty of Kyakhta in 1727, Urga (Ulaanbaatar) was a major point of theKyakhta trade between Russia and China – mostly Siberian furs for Chinese cloth and later tea. The route ran south to Urga, southeast across theGobi Desert toKalgan, and southeast over the mountains to Peking. Urga was also a collection point for goods coming from further west. These were either sent to China or shipped north to Russia via Kyakhta, because of legal restrictions and the lack of good trade routes to the west.[citation needed]
By 1908,[15] there was a Russian quarter with a few hundred merchants and a Russian club and informal Russian mayor. East of the main town was the Russian consulate, built in 1863, with anOrthodox church, a post office and 20Cossack guards. It was fortified in 1900 and briefly occupied by troops during theBoxer Rebellion. There was a telegraph line north to Kyakhta and southeast to Kalgan and weekly postal service along these routes.[citation needed]
Beyond the Russian consulate was the Chinese trading post calledMaimaicheng, and nearby the palace of the Manchu viceroy. With the growth of Western trade at the Chinese ports, the tea trade to Russia declined, some Chinese merchants left, and wool became the main export. Manufactured goods still came from Russia, but most were now brought from Kalgan by caravan. The annual trade was estimated at 25 million rubles, nine-tenths in Chinese hands and one-tenth in Russian.[citation needed]
The Moscow trade expedition of the 1910s estimated the population of Urga at 60,000, based onNikolay Przhevalsky's study in the 1870s.[16]
The city's population swelled during theNaadam festival and major religious festivals to more than 100,000. In 1919, the number of monks had reached 20,000, up from 13,000 in 1810.[16]
A 1913 panorama of the city. The large circular compound in the middle is the Zuun Khuree temple-palace complex. The Gandan temple complex is to the left. The palaces of the Bogd are to the south of the river. To the far bottom right of the painting is the Maimaicheng district. To its left are the white buildings of the Russian consulate area.Manjusri Monastery can be seen on Mount Bogd Khan Uul at the bottom-right of the painting.
Jarlig proclaiming Ikh Khüree as Niislel (Capital) Khüree, 1912
In 1910, theambanSando went to quell a major fight betweenGandan lamas and Chinese traders started by an incident at the Da Yi Yu shop in the Baruun Damnuurchin market district. He was unable to bring the lamas under control, and was forced to flee back to his quarters. In 1911, with theQing dynasty in China headed for total collapse, Mongolian leaders in Ikh Khüree forNaadam met in secret on Mount Bogd Khan Uul and resolved to end 220 years ofManchu control of their country.[citation needed]
On 29 December 1911, the8th Jebtsundamba Khutughtu was declared ruler of anindependent Mongolia and assumed the title Bogd Khan.[11] Khüree as the seat of the Jebtsundamba Khutugtu was the logical choice for the capital of the new state. However, following thetripartite Kyakhta agreement of 1915, Mongolia's status was effectively reduced to mere autonomy.
In 1919, Mongolian nobles, over the opposition of the Bogd Khan, agreed with the Chinese resident Chen Yi on a settlement of the "Mongolian question" along Qing-era lines, but before this settlement could be put into effect, Khüree was occupied by the troops of Chinese warlordXu Shuzheng, who forced the Mongolian nobles and clergy to renounce autonomy completely.[citation needed]
The city changed hands twice in 1921. First, on 4 February, a mixed Russian/Mongolian force led byWhite Russian warlordRoman von Ungern-Sternberg captured the city, freeing theBogd Khan from Chinese imprisonment and killing a part of the Chinese garrison. Baron Ungern's capture of Urga was followed by the clearing out of Mongolia's small gangs of demoralized Chinese soldiers and, at the same time, looting and murder of foreigners, including a vicious pogrom thatkilled off the Jewish community.[17][18][19]
On 22 February 1921, the Bogd Khan was once again elevated to Great Khan of Mongolia in Urga.[20] However, at the same time that Baron Ungern was taking control of Urga, a Soviet-supported Communist Mongolian force led byDamdin Sükhbaatar was forming in Russia, and in March they crossed the border. Ungern and his men rode out in May to meet Red Russian and Red Mongolian troops, but suffered a disastrous defeat in June.[21]
In July 1921, the Communist Soviet-Mongolian army became the second conquering force in six months to enter Urga, and Mongolia came under the control of Soviet Russia. On 29 October 1924, the town was renamedUlaanbaatar. On the session of the 1st Great People's Khuraldaan of Mongolia in 1924, a majority of delegates had expressed their wish to change the capital city's name toBaatar Khot (lit.'Hero City'). However, under pressure fromTurar Ryskulov, a Kazakh Soviet activist of theCommunist International, the city was namedUlaanbaatar Khot (lit.'Red-Hero City').[22]
TheTrans-Mongolian Railway, connecting Ulaanbaatar with Moscow and Beijing, was completed in 1956, and cinemas, theaters, museums and other modern facilities were erected. Most of the temples and monasteries of pre-socialist Khüree were destroyed following the anti-religiouspurges of the late 1930s. The Gandan monastery was reopened in 1944 when theU.S. Vice PresidentHenry Wallace asked to see a monastery during his visit to Mongolia.[24]
Since Mongolia's transition to a market economy in 1990, the city has experienced rapid growth. From a population of 535,000 in 1990, it had grown to 1 million inhabitants by 2007, and 1.5 million by 2021,[25] or about half the entire country's population. Much of this rapid population rise is attributed to migration from rural areas, as herder families abandon their traditional lifestyles in search of opportunities in the city.[26] Much of these new arrivals settle inger districts without plumbing, sanitation, central heating, and basic services. This rise in population, including the formation of new settlement areas, has not been accompanied with appropriate investment in infrastructure and services,[27] hampering development and causing a myriad of problems.
Ulaanbaatar wasthe scene of riots in 2008 after supporters of the opposition parties disputed the rulingMongolian People's Revolutionary Party's claim of victory after theparliamentary elections. A four-day state of emergency was declared, the capital was placed under a curfew, and alcohol sales banned with no further riots taking place.[28][29] This was the first deadly riot in modern Ulaanbaatar's history.
In April 2013, Ulaanbaatar hosted the 7th Ministerial Conference of theCommunity of Democracies, and has also lent its name to the Ulaanbaatar Dialogue on Northeast Asian Security.
The 2019 Mongolian government budget originally included items for the demolition of a number of historic neoclassical buildings in the heart of Ulaanbaatar, including theNatural History Museum,Academic Theatre of Opera and Ballet,Drama Theatre andNational Library.[36] The decision was met by a public outcry and criticism from the Union of Mongolian Architects, which demanded that the buildings be preserved and restored.[37] In January 2020, culture minister Yondonperenlein Baatarbileg denied that the government intended to demolish buildings other than the Natural History Museum, and stated that the government planned to renovate them instead.[38]
Satellite image of Ulaanbaatar, showing the city core along the Tuul River Valley with Bogd Khan Mountain dominating the south. The city's ger districts sprawl into the mountainous areas in the north.
Ulaanbaatar is located at about 1,350 metres (4,430 ft) above meansea level, slightly east of the center of Mongolia, on theTuul River, a sub-tributary of theSelenge, in a valley at the foot ofBogd Khan Mountain. Bogd Khan Mountain is a broad, heavily forested mountain rising 2,250 metres (7,380 ft) to the south of Ulaanbaatar. It forms the boundary between thesteppe zone to the south and the forest-steppe zone to the north. Traditionally, Ulaanbaatar is said to be surrounded by four peaks, clockwise from west: Songino Khairkhan, Chingeltei, Bayanzurkh, and finally Bogd Khan Mountain.
The forests of the mountains surrounding Ulaanbaatar are composed of evergreen pines,deciduous larches andbirches, while the riverine forest of the Tuul River is composed of broad-leaved, deciduouspoplars,elms andwillows. Ulaanbaatar lies at roughly the same latitude asVienna,Munich,Orléans andSeattle. It lies at roughly the same longitude asChongqing,Hanoi andJakarta.[citation needed]
Owing to its high elevation, its relatively high latitude, its location hundreds of kilometres from any coast, and the effects of theSiberian anticyclone, Ulaanbaatar is the coldest national capital in the world,[39] with amonsoon-influenced, coldsemi-arid climate (KöppenBSk,TrewarthaBSbc, USDAPlant Hardiness Zone 3b[40]). Aside from precipitation and from a thermal standpoint, the city is on the boundary betweenhumid continental (Dwb) andsubarctic (Dwc). This is due to its 10 °C (50 °F) mean temperature for the month of May.
The city features brief, warm summers and long, bitterly cold and dry winters. The coldest January temperatures, usually at the time just before sunrise, are between −36 and −40 °C (−32.8 and −40.0 °F) with no wind, because oftemperature inversion. Most of the annualprecipitation of 267 millimetres (10.51 in) falls from May to September. The highest recorded annual precipitation in the city was 659 millimetres or 25.94 inches at the Khureltogoot Astronomical Observatory on Bogd Khan Mountain. Ulaanbaatar has an average annual temperature of 0.2 °C or 32.4 °F,[41] making it the coldest capital in the world (almost as cold asNuuk,Greenland, but Greenland is not independent). Nuuk has a tundra climate with consistent cold temperatures throughout the year. Ulaanbaatar's annual average is brought down by its cold winter temperatures even though it is significantly warm from late April to early October.
The city lies in the zone ofdiscontinuous permafrost, which means that building is difficult in sheltered locations that preclude thawing in the summer, but easier on more exposed ones where soils fully thaw. Suburban residents live in traditionalyurts that do not protrude into the soil.[42] Extreme temperatures in the city range from −43.9 °C (−47.0 °F) in January 1957 to 39.0 °C (102.2 °F) in July 1988.[43]
Climate data for Ulaanbaatar, elevation 1,303 m (4,275 ft), (1991–2020 normals, extremes 1869–present)
The city's inner core consists of a central district built in 1940s- and 1950s-style Soviet architecture, surrounded by and mingled with residentialconcrete towerblocks and largeger districts. Starting after the fall of communism, many of the towerblocks' ground floors were modified and upgraded to small shops, and many new buildings have been erected—some illegally, as some private companies erect buildings without legal licenses/permits. Since the 2010s, a construction boom has been ongoing, leading to many high-rise apartment and office blocks in the inner core as well as new settlement areas.[30]Sükhbaatar Square, in the government district, is the center of Ulaanbaatar[46] and contains in the middle a statue ofrevolutionary heroDamdin Sükhbaatar on horseback; and in the north side a statue ofChinggis Khan. To the north is theGovernment Palace, while Peace Avenue (Enkh Taivny Urgon Chuloo), the main thoroughfare through town, runs along the south side of the square.[47]
Important shopping districts include the 3rd Microdistrict Boulevard (simply calledKhoroolol or "the District"), Peace Avenue around theState Department Store (simply calledIkh Delguur or "Great Store") and theNarantul Market area (simply calledZakh or "the Market").
Ulaanbaatar presently has multiple cinemas, one modern ski resort, two large indoor stadiums, several large department stores and one large amusement park. Food, entertainment and recreation venues are steadily increasing in variety. International food chains such asKFC,Burger King,Pizza Hut,Round Table Pizza,Cinnabon, and hotel chains such asRamada,Kempinski, andShangri-La have opened branches in the city.
A number of national parks and protected areas officially belong to the city.Gorkhi-Terelj National Park, a nature preserve with many tourist facilities, is approximately 70 km (43 mi) from Ulaanbaatar. Routes 2 and 3 of the long-distance hiking trailMongol Olle Trail are located within this park. The 40-metre-high (130-foot)Genghis Khan Equestrian Statue is 54 km (34 mi) east of the city center.
Bogd Khan Uul, which dominates the south, is a strictlyprotected area with a length of 31 kilometres (19 miles) and width of 3 kilometres (1.9 miles), covering an area of 67,300 hectares (166,302 acres). Nature conservation dates back to the twelfth and thirteenth centuries when theTooril Khan of the Mongolian AncientKeraite Aimag – who prohibited logging and hunting activities – claimed the Bogd Khan as a holy mountain.[51] The ruins ofManjusri Monastery are located on the southern flank of Bogd Khan Mountain and is a popular destination for outings.
TheNational Amusement Park is an amusement park located in the downtown section, south of Shangri-La Hotel. It is also a popular place for young people to hang out. This small amusement park features rides, games and paddle boats. Its originalArtificial Lake Castle was built in 1969.[52]
TheNational Garden Park, in the southeastern outskirts of the city, opened in 2009 and has become a popular summer destination for residents. It has a total area of 55 hectares, with over 100,000 trees planted. The park is geared towards becoming an educational center for healthy, responsible living as well as environmental education.[53]
As Mongolia'sprimate city, Ulaanbaatar has been the focal point for urbanization and migration from rural areas.[55] With a population of 400 thousand in 1979,[56][57][58] it has experienced rapid growth, reaching 1 million inhabitants around 2007.[59] Population growth in the 2010s averaged 2.7% a year, representing a two-fold fall from the previous decade.[60] In 2020, the city's population was recorded as 1,466,125.[60]
Two-thirds of the city's inhabitants live inger districts, areas with inadequate infrastructure, sanitation, and public services.[55][61]
64.6% of the population was reported to have been born in Ulaanbaatar. Theforeign-born population was recorded as 17,456 in 2020.[60]
According to the 2020 national census, 46.3% of the population over 15 years of age identified as beingirreligious, while 53.7% identified as being religious, a decrease of 7.7 percentage points inreligiosity since the 2010 census.[60]
Although administratively part of Ulaanbaatar, Nalaikh and Baganuur are separate cities. Bagakhangai and Baganuur are noncontiguous exclaves, the former located within theTöv Province, the latter on the border between Töv andKhentii provinces.
The official emblem of Ulaanbaatar is thegaruḍa, a mythical bird in bothBuddhist andHindu scriptures, referred to as theKhangar'd (Mongolian:Хангарьд,lit.'Khan Garuda') by Mongols.
Thegaruḍa appears on Ulaanbaatar'semblem. In its right hand is a key, a symbol of prosperity and openness, and in its left is alotus flower, a symbol of peace, equality and purity. In its talons it is holding a snake, a symbol of evil of which it is intolerant. On thegaruḍa's forehead is thesoyombo symbol, which is featured on theflag of Mongolia. The city's flag is sky blue representing theeternal sky and has thegaruḍa in the center.[66]
The largest corporations and conglomerates of Mongolia are almost all headquartered in Ulaanbaatar. In 2017 Ulaanbaatar had five billionaires and 90 multimillionaires with net worth above 10 million dollars.[67][68] Major Mongolian companies include MCS Group, Gatsuurt LLC, Genco, MAK, Altai Trading, Tavan Bogd Group,Mobicom Corporation, Bodi, Shunkhlai, Monnis and Petrovis. While not on the level of multinational corporations, most of these companies are multi-sector conglomerates with far-reaching influence in the country.
Ulaanbaatar (Urga) has been a key location where the economic history and wealth creation of the nation has played out. Unlike the highly mobile dwellings of herders nomadizing between winter and summer pastures, Urga was set up to be a semi-permanent residence of the high lamaZanabazar.[citation needed] It stood in one location (Khoshoo Tsaidam) from 1640 to 1654, an unusually long period of 15 years, before Zanabazar moved it east to the foot of Mount Saridag in theKhentii Mountains. Here he set about building a permanent monastery town with stone buildings. Urga stayed at Mount Saridag for a full 35 years and was indeed assumed to be permanent there whenOirats suddenly invaded the region in 1688 and burnt down the city. With a major part of his life's work destroyed, Zanabazar had to take the mobile portion of Urga and flee toInner Mongolia.[citation needed]
More than half the wealth created in Urga in the period from 1639 to 1688 is thought to have been lost in 1688. Only in 1701 did Urga return to the region and start a second period of expansion, but it had to remain mobile until the end of the 70-year-longDzungar-Qing Wars in 1757. After settling down in its current location in 1778, Urga saw sustained economic growth, but most of the wealth went to the Buddhist clergy, nobles as well as the temporaryShanxi merchants based in the eastern and western China-towns of Urga. There were numerous companies calledpuus (пүүс) and temple treasuries calledjas (жас), which functioned as businesses, but none of these survived the Communist period. During theMongolian People's Republic, private property was only marginally tolerated, while most assets were state-owned. The oldest companies still operating in Ulaanbaatar date to the early MPR. Only theGandantegchinlen Monastery has been operating non-stop for 205 years (with a 6-year gap during World War II), but whether it can be seen as a business is still debated.
As the main industrial center of Mongolia, Ulaanbaatar produces a variety of consumer goods[69] and is responsible for about two-thirds of Mongolia's totalgross domestic product (GDP).[70]
The transition to a market economy in 1990 has so far correlated with an increase in GDP, leading to a shift towards service industries (which now make up 43% of the city's GDP) along with rapid urbanization and population growth.[71]
Mining is the second-largest contributor to Ulaanbaatar's GDP, at 25%. North of the city are several gold mines, including theBoroo Gold Mine, and foreign investment in the sector has allowed for growth and development. However, in light of a noticeable drop in GDP during thefinancial crisis of 2008, as demand for mining exports dropped,[71] there has been movement towards diversifying the economy.[70]
Mongolian National Song and Dance Academic Ensemble
Ulaanbaatar features a mix of traditional and western-style theatres, offering world-class performances. Many of the traditional folklore bands play regularly around the world, including in New York, London and Tokyo. TheUlaanbaatar Opera House, situated in the center of the city, hosts concerts and musical performances as well as opera and ballet performances, some in collaboration with world ballet houses such as the Boston Theatre.
The Mongolian State Grand National Orchestra was established in 1945. It has the largest orchestra of traditional instruments in the country, with a repertoire going beyondnational music, encompassing dozens of international musical pieces.[72]
The Tumen Ekh Ensemble comprises artists who perform all types of Mongolian song, music and dance. They play traditional instruments, including themorin khuur (horsehead fiddle), and perform Mongolianlong song, epic and eulogy songs, ashaman ritual dance, an ancient palace dance and a Tsam mask dance.[73]
The Morin Khuur Ensemble of Mongolia is part of theMongolian State Philharmonic, based at Sükhbaatar Square. It is a popular ensemble featuring the national string instrument, the morin khuur, and performs various domestic and international works.
Among the notable older monasteries is theChoijin Lama Monastery, a Buddhist monastery that was completed in 1908. It escaped the destruction of Mongolian monasteries when it was turned into a museum in 1942.[74]
Another is theGandan Monastery, which dates to the 19th century. Its most famous attraction is a 26.5-meter-high golden statue ofMigjid Janraisig.[75] These monasteries are among the very few in Mongolia to escape the wholesale destruction of Mongolian monasteries underKhorloogiin Choibalsan.
Pre-1778 artifacts that have never left the city since its founding include theVajradhara statue made by Zanabazar himself in 1683 (the city's main deity, kept at the Vajradhara temple); an ornate throne presented to Zanabazar by theKangxi Emperor (before 1723); asandalwood hat presented to Zanabazar by theDalai Lama (c. 1663); Zanabazar's large fur coat, also presented by the Kangxi Emperor; and a great number of original statues made by Zanabazar (e.g., the GreenTara).
TheMongolian Military Museum features two permanent exhibition halls, commemorating the war history of the country from prehistoric times to the modern era. In the first hall, one can see various tools and weapons from thePaleolithic age to the times of theManchu empire. The second hall showcases the modern history of the Mongolian military, from theBogd Khan period (1911–1924) up until Mongolia's recent military involvement in peacekeeping operations.
TheUlaanbaatar City Museum offers a view of Ulaanbaatar's history through old maps and photos. Among the permanent items is a huge painting of the capital as it looked in 1912, showing major landmarks such asGandan Monastery and theGreen Palace. Part of the museum is dedicated to special photo exhibits that change frequently. The Mongolian Railway History Museum is an open-air museum that displays six types of locomotives used during a 65-year period of Mongolian rail history.
TheMemorial Museum of Victims of Political Repression – dedicated to those fallen under the Communistpurge that took the lives of over 32,000 statesmen, herders, scholars, politicians and lamas in the 1930s – told about one of the most tragic periods in Mongolia's 20th-century history.[82] The small building had fallen into serious disrepair and was demolished on 7 October 2019, despite public outcry in favor of renovation.[32]
TheNational Library of Mongolia is located in Ulaanbaatar and includes an extensive historical collection, items in non-Mongolian languages and a special children's collection.[83]
The Metropolitan Central Library of Ulaanbaatar, sometimes also referred to as the Ulaanbaatar Public Library, is apublic library with a collection of about 500,000 items. It has 232,097 annual users and a total of 497,298 loans per year. It does charge users a registration fee of 3800 to 4250tugrik, or about US$3.29 to 3.68. The fees may be the result of operating on a budget under $176,000 per year. They also host websites on classical and modernMongolian literature and food, in addition to providing free internet access.[83]
In 1986, the Ulaanbaatar government created a centralized system for all public libraries in the city, known as the Metropolitan Library System of Ulaanbaatar (MLSU). This system coordinates management, acquisitions, finances and policy among public libraries in the capital, in addition to providing support to school and children's libraries.[84] Other than the Metropolitan Central Library, the MLSU has four branch libraries. They are in theChingeltei District (established in 1946), in the Khan-Uul District (established in 1948), in the Bayanzurkh District (established in 1968) and in the Songino-Khairkhan District (established in 1991). There is also a Children's Central Library, which was established in 1979.[85]
The Press Institute in Ulaanbaatar oversees the Digital Archive of Mongolian Newspapers. It is a collection of 45 newspaper titles with a particular focus on the years after the fall of communism in Mongolia.[93] The project was supported by theBritish Library'sEndangered Archives Programme. The Metropolitan Central Library in Ulaanbaatar maintains a digital monthly news archive.[94]
TheAmerican Center for Mongolian Studies (ACMS)[95] operates a research library with 1,500 volumes related to Mongolia in numerous languages. It also hosts an online library that includes special reference resources and access to digital databases,[96] including a digital book collection.[97][98]
There is a Speaking Library at School #116 for the visually impaired, funded by theZorig Foundation, and the collection is largely based on materials donated byMongolian National Radio.[99]
The Mongolia-Japan Center for Human Resources Development[100] maintains a library in Ulaanbaatar consisting of about 7,800 items, with a strong focus on both aiding Mongolians studying Japanese and books in Japanese about Mongolia.[101]
Ulaanbaatar serves as the country's primary road, air, and rail hub. Transport within Ulaanbaatar is conducted through private cars, public transport (buses,trolleybuses, andtaxis), as well as informal taxis and minivans.[103] As of 2021, the total number of registered vehicles in the city was 662,644.[103]
Buses are the main form of public transport in Ulaanbaatar. As of 2021, 950 buses from 19 companies served 105 routes and 1169 bus stops. Daily ridership is 480-500 thousand.[104] The bus fleet consists of 18articulated buses, 1129 high capacitybuses, 42trolleybuses, 46 medium capacity buses, and 46 small capacity buses.[104]
In 2021, public transport usage totaled 147 million passengers, with 61% of the population using public transport.[104]
In July 2015, a smart card system was rolled out for bus fare payments (U Money) - previously the bus network had conductors from which tickets would be bought using cash. As of 2021, fares are 100-200₮ for children and 300-500₮ for adults.[104]
8 companies operate 372 official taxis within the city as of 2021,[104] down from 566 official taxis in 2019.[105] Usage of unofficial taxis andride-sharing apps (UBCab) is common.
As of 2024, the city had 1253 km of paved roads,[106] and its periphery (ger districts) are disproportionally underserved by paved roads.[107] 720,000 vehicles were registered in the city as of 2023.[108]
The city's traffic is concentrated around its main thoroughfares — Peace Avenue (Enkh Taivny örgön chölöö), Ikh Toiruu, Narnii Zam, and Chinggis Avenue (Chinggisiin örgön chölöö).[109]
Congestion is a major problem in Ulaanbaatar, with average peak hour driving speeds in the city being 8.9 km/h in 2021. In the same year, city residents spent an average of 2.5 hours a day stuck in traffic.[110] Recent studies predict rush hour speeds plummeting to just 5 km/hr by 2025.[111] Another major problem is flooding,[112] with only 16% of paved roads having adrainage system.[106]
Ulaanbaatar is served byChinggis Khaan International Airport, located 52 km (32 mi) south of the city inSergelen, Töv, which functions as the country's main air hub. It replaced the formerBuyant-Ukhaa International Airport in 2021[113] and features flights to destinations in Europe, Asia, and domesticaimag centers. The airport is accessible from Ulaanbaatar via highway with taxis and shuttles operating along the route.
Due to worsening congestion and growth, a number of proposals have been made to improve the city's transport infrastructure, such as the short-livedUlaanbaatar Railbus, and the proposedsubway system. On 4 April 2024, the construction of a cable car from Yaarma to the Kharkhorin bus station began.[114]
Ulaanbaatar's electricity is mainly supplied through its four thermal power plants utilizing coal, the largest beingThermal Power Plant No. 4. Aside from generating electricity, they alsosupply hot water throughout the city and heat buildings during the winter months from September to April. Ger districts surrounding the city are not connected to the central heating system, therefore having to rely on burning coal and other materials for heat.
In 2019, the government banned the burning of raw coal within Ulaanbaatar, instead distributingcoke briquettes, claiming fuel efficiency and less smoke pollution.[115] Results have been inconclusive since the switch to briquettes,[116] though as of 2023 smoke is still a major concern in winter.[117]
Ulaanbaatar relies entirely on groundwater recharged directly from theTuul River. Water provisioning is managed by the Water Supply and Sewage Authority, a municipal agency.[118]
Ger district in Ulaanbaatar with the Temple of Boddhisattva Avalokiteshvara at Gandantegchinlen Monastery in the background
Air pollution is a serious problem in Ulaanbaatar, especially in winter. Concentrations of certain types ofparticulates (PM10 and PM2.5) regularly exceedWorld Health Organization recommended maximum levels by more than a dozen times. They also exceed the concentrations measured in northern Chinese industrial cities. During the winter months, smoke regularly obscures vision, and even led to problems with air traffic at theformer airport.[119]
Sources of the pollution are mainly the simple stoves used for heating and cooking in the city'sger districts, but also the local coal-fueled power plants. The problem is compounded by Ulaanbaatar's location in a valley between relatively high mountains, which shield the city from the winter winds and thus obstruct air circulation.[120][121]
^Ankhtuyaa, B. (18 October 2019)."A crime against culture': Ulaanbaatar set to demolish majestic Soviet-era buildings".News.mn. Retrieved19 April 2021.As the parliament began its autumn legislative agenda, the government budget for the year revealed several line items financing the demolition of the city's Natural History Museum, Opera and Ballet House, Drama Theatre, and Central Library.
^Baljmaa.T (13 January 2020)."Culture Minister: Three historical buildings to be renovated with MNT 6 billion".Montsame. Retrieved19 April 2021.This has garnered public criticism, including the Union of Mongolian Architects, who claimed that those buildings hold cultural heritage and architectural values, and demanding preservation and restoration of the buildings instead of demolition.
^Baljmaa.T (13 January 2020)."Culture Minister: Three historical buildings to be renovated with MNT 6 billion".Montsame. Retrieved19 April 2021.Concerning the prolonged public outcry, Minister of Education, Culture Science and Sports Yo.Baatarbileg today clarified during his meeting with reporters that 'Buildings of National Academic Drama Theater, National Academic Theater of Opera and Ballet of Mongolia and Central Library of Mongolia are planned to go under renovation this year with funding of MNT 2 billion from state budget for each. The official position and decision of the Ministry of Culture not to demolish them remain the same as before'.
^Нийслэл хот 204 хороотой боллоо [The capital city has 204 khoroos].Montsame Mongolian National News Agency (in Mongolian). 2021-12-27. Retrieved2024-06-04.
Lattimore, Owen."Communism, Mongolian Brand",The Atlantic, September 1962. A unique, detailed historical snapshot of life in Mongolia at the height of the Cold War. Retrieved 11 August 2022.
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