Humans have inhabited Ukraine since 32,000 BC. During theMiddle Ages, it was the site ofearly Slavic expansion and later became a key centre ofEast Slavic culture under the state ofKievan Rus', which emerged in the 9th century. Kievan Rus' became the largest and most powerful realm in Europe in the 10th and 11th centuries, but gradually disintegrated into rival regional powers before being destroyed by theMongols in the 13th century. For the next 600 years the area was contested, divided, and ruled by a variety of external powers including theGrand Duchy of Lithuania, theKingdom of Poland, thePolish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, theAustrian Empire, theOttoman Empire, and theTsardom of Russia.
Thename of Ukraine is frequently interpreted as coming from theold Slavic term for 'borderland' as is the wordkrajina.[19] Another interpretation is that the name of Ukraine means "region" or "country".
In theEnglish-speaking world during most of the 20th century, Ukraine (whether independent or not) was referred to as "the Ukraine".[20] This is because in Russian, the wordukraina means 'borderland'[21] so thedefinite article would be natural in the English language; this is similar toNederlanden, which means 'low lands' and is rendered in English as "theNetherlands".[22] However, since Ukraine'sdeclaration of independence in 1991, this usage has become politicised and is now rarer, andstyle guides advise against its use.[23][24] U.S. ambassadorWilliam Taylor said that using "the Ukraine" implies disregard for Ukrainian sovereignty.[25] The official Ukrainian position is that "the Ukraine" is both grammatically and politically incorrect.[26][27]
From the 6th century BC,Greek,Roman, andByzantine colonies were established on the north-eastern shore of theBlack Sea, such as atTyras,Olbia, andChersonesus. These thrived into the 6th century AD. TheGoths stayed in the area, but came under the sway of theHuns from the 370s. In the 7th century, the territory that is now eastern Ukraine was the centre ofOld Great Bulgaria. At the end of the century, the majority of Bulgar tribes migrated in different directions, and theKhazars took over much of the land.[37]
In the 5th and 6th centuries, theAntes, which some relate as anearly Slavic people, lived in Ukraine. Migrations from the territories of present-day Ukraine throughout theBalkans established manySouth Slavic nations. Northern migrations, reaching almost toLake Ilmen, led to the emergence of theIlmen Slavs andKrivichs. Following anAvar raid in 602 and the collapse of the Antes Union, most of these peoples survived as separate tribes until the beginning of the second millennium.[38]
The establishment of the state ofKievan Rus' remains obscure and uncertain.[39] The state included much of present-day Ukraine, Belarus and the western part ofEuropean Russia.[40] According to thePrimary Chronicle, theRus' people initially consisted ofVarangians fromScandinavia.[41] In 882, the paganPrince Oleg (Oleh) conqueredKyiv fromAskold and Dir and proclaimed it as the new capital of the Rus'.[42]Anti-Normanist historians however argue that the East Slavic tribes along the southern parts of theDnieper River were already in the process of forming a state independently.[43] The Varangian elite, including the rulingRurik dynasty, later assimilated into the Slavic population.[40] Kievan Rus' was composed of severalprincipalities ruled by the interrelated Rurikidkniazes ("princes"), who often fought each other for possession of Kyiv.[44]
During the 10th and 11th centuries, Kievan Rus' became the largest and most powerful state in Europe, a period known as its Golden Age.[45] It began with the reign ofVladimir the Great (980–1015), whointroduced Christianity. During the reign of his son,Yaroslav the Wise (1019–1054), Kievan Rus' reached the zenith of its cultural development and military power.[40] The state soon fragmented as the relative importance of regional powers rose again. After a final resurgence under the rule ofVladimir II Monomakh (1113–1125) and his sonMstislav (1125–1132), Kievan Rus' finally disintegrated into separate principalities following Mstislav's death, though ownership of Kyiv would still carry great prestige for decades.[46] In the 11th and 12th centuries, the nomadic confederacy of theTurkic-speakingCumans andKipchaks was the dominant force in thePontic steppe north of the Black Sea.[47]
Deprived of native protectors among the Ruthenian nobility, the peasants and townspeople began turning for protection to the emergingZaporozhian Cossacks. In the mid-17th century, a Cossack military quasi-state, theZaporozhian Host, was formed byDnieper Cossacks and Ruthenian peasants.[58] Poland exercised little real control over this population, but found the Cossacks to be useful against theTurks and Tatars,[59] and at times the two were allies inmilitary campaigns.[60] However, the continued harshenserfment of Ruthenian peasantry by Polishszlachta (many of whom were PolonisedRuthenian nobles) and the suppression of the Orthodox Church alienated the Cossacks.[59] The latter did not shy from taking up arms against those they perceived as enemies and occupiers, including the Catholic Church with its local representatives.[61]
In 1648,Bohdan Khmelnytsky led thelargest of the Cossack uprisings against the Commonwealth and thePolish king, which enjoyed wide support from the local population.[62] Khmelnytsky founded theCossack Hetmanate, which existed until 1764 (some sources claim until 1782).[63] After Khmelnytsky suffered a crushing defeat at theBattle of Berestechko in 1651, he turned to theRussian tsar for help. In 1654, Khmelnytsky was subject to thePereiaslav Agreement, forming a military and political alliance with Russia that acknowledged loyalty to the Russian monarch.
The Hetmanate's autonomy was severely restricted since Poltava. In the years 1764–1781,Catherine the Great incorporated much ofCentral Ukraine into theRussian Empire, abolishing the Cossack Hetmanate and theZaporozhian Sich, and was one of the people responsible for the suppression of the last major Cossack uprising, theKoliivshchyna.[66] After theannexation of Crimea by Russia in 1783, the newly acquired lands, now calledNovorossiya, were opened up to settlement by Russians.[67] Thetsarist autocracy established a policy ofRussification, suppressing the use of theUkrainian language and curtailing the Ukrainian national identity.[68] The western part of present-day Ukraine was subsequently split between Russia andHabsburg-ruledAustria after thefall of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1795.
Polish troops enter Kyiv in May 1920 during thePolish–Soviet War. Following thePeace of Riga signed on 18 March 1921, Poland took control of modern-day western Ukraine while Soviets took control of eastern and central Ukraine
Ukraine, like the rest of the Russian Empire, joined theIndustrial Revolutionlater than most of Western Europe[73][failed verification] due to the maintenance ofserfdom until 1861.[citation needed] Other than near the newly discovered coal fields of theDonbas, and in some larger cities such asOdesa and Kyiv, Ukraine largely remained an agricultural and resource extraction economy.[74] The Austrian part of Ukrainewas particularly destitute, which forced hundreds of thousands of peasants into emigration, who created the backbone of an extensiveUkrainian diaspora in countries such asCanada, theUnited States andBrazil.[75] Some of the Ukrainians settled in the Far East, too. According to the1897 census, there were 223,000 ethnic Ukrainians inSiberia and 102,000 inCentral Asia.[76] An additional 1.6 million emigrated to the east in the ten years after the opening of theTrans-Siberian Railway in 1906.[77]Far Eastern areas with an ethnic Ukrainian population became known asGreen Ukraine.[78]
Ukraine plunged into turmoil with the beginning ofWorld War I, and fighting on Ukrainian soil persisted until late 1921. Initially, the Ukrainians were split between Austria-Hungary, fighting for theCentral Powers, though the vast majority served in theImperial Russian Army, which was part of theTriple Entente, under Russia.[79] As the Russian Empire collapsed, the conflict evolved into theUkrainian War of Independence, with Ukrainians fighting alongside, or against, theRed,White,Black andGreen armies, with the Poles, Hungarians (inTranscarpathia), and Germans also intervening at various times.
Youth in national Ukrainian dress during a ceremony commemorating the 22nd January 1919 "Act of Reunification of the Ukrainian People's Republic and the Western Ukrainian People's Republic", which is honoured yearly across 22 cities of Ukraine
The result of the conflict was a partial victory for theSecond Polish Republic, which annexed the Western Ukrainian provinces, as well as a larger-scale victory for the pro-Soviet forces, which succeeded in dislodging the remaining factions and eventually established theUkrainian Soviet Socialist Republic (Soviet Ukraine). Meanwhile, modern-dayBukovina was occupied byRomania andCarpathian Ruthenia was admitted toCzechoslovakia as an autonomous region.[81]
The conflict over Ukraine, a part of the broaderRussian Civil War, devastated the whole of the former Russian Empire, including eastern and central Ukraine. The fighting left over 1.5 million people dead and hundreds of thousands homeless in the former Russian Empire's territory.Famine in 1921 further hit the eastern provinces.[82][83]
Starved peasants on a street inKharkiv, 1933.Collectivisation of crops and their confiscation by Soviet authorities led to a major famine in Soviet Ukraine known as theHolodomorLes Kurbas, one of the lead figures of theExecuted Renaissance, was executed by the Soviet authorities, as many other Ukrainian intellectuals[84][85]
During the inter-war period, in Poland, MarshalJózef Piłsudski sought Ukrainian support by offering local autonomy as a way to minimise Soviet influence in Poland's easternKresy region.[86][87] However, this approach was abandoned after Piłsudski's death in 1935, due to continued unrest among the Ukrainian population, including assassinations of Polish government officials by theOrganisation of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN); with the Polish government responding by restricting rights of people who declared Ukrainian nationality.[88][89] In consequence, the undergroundUkrainian nationalist and militant movement, which arose in the 1920s gained wider support.
Meanwhile, the recently constituted Soviet Ukraine became one of the founding republics of theSoviet Union. During the 1920s,[90] under the Ukrainisation policy pursued by the national Communist leadership ofMykola Skrypnyk, Soviet leadership at first encouraged a national renaissance inUkrainian culture and language.Ukrainisation was part of the Soviet-wide policy ofKorenisation (literallyindigenisation), which was intended to promote the advancement of native peoples, their language and culture into the governance of their respective republics.
Around the same time, Soviet leaderVladimir Lenin instituted theNew Economic Policy (NEP), which introduced a form ofmarket socialism, allowing some private ownership of small and medium-sized productive enterprises, hoping to reconstruct the post-war Soviet Union that had been devastated by both WWI and later the civil war. The NEP was successful at restoring the formerly war-torn nation to pre-WWI levels of production and agricultural output by the mid-1920s, much of the latter based in Ukraine.[91] These policies attracted many prominent former UNR figures, including former UNR leader Hrushevsky, to return to Soviet Ukraine, where they were accepted, and participated in the advancement of Ukrainian science and culture.[92] In July 1922, arrests anddeportations of Ukrainian intellectuals (e.g. university professors) began in Soviet Ukraine and continued throughout the 1920s.[93]
This period was cut short whenJoseph Stalin became the leader of the USSR following Lenin's death. Stalin did away with the NEP in what became known as theGreat Break. Starting from the late 1920s and now with acentrally planned economy, Soviet Ukraine took part in anindustrialisation scheme which quadrupled its industrial output during the 1930s.
Nevertheless, Stalin sought to prevent the Ukrainians aspirations for the independence of Ukraine and took severe measures to eliminate Ukrainian peasantry and elite Ukrainian intellectuals and culturists.[94][85] As a consequence of Stalin's new policy, the Ukrainian peasantry suffered from theprogramme of collectivisation of agricultural crops. Collectivisation was part of thefirst five-year plan and was enforced by regular troops and the secret police known asCheka. Those who resisted werearrested and deported togulags and work camps. As members of the collective farms were sometimes not allowed to receive any grain until unrealistic quotas were met, millions starved to death in afamine known as theHolodomor or the "Great Famine", which was recognised by some countries as an act ofgenocide perpetrated by Joseph Stalin and other Soviet notables.[95]
Following on the Russian Civil War and collectivisation, theGreat Purge, while killing Stalin's perceived political enemies, resulted in a profound loss of a new generation of Ukrainian intelligentsia, known today as theExecuted Renaissance.[96]
German armiesinvaded the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941, initiating nearly four years oftotal war. TheAxis initially advanced against desperate but unsuccessful efforts of the Red Army. In thebattle of Kyiv, the city was acclaimed as a "Hero City", because of its fierce resistance. More than 600,000 Soviet soldiers (or one-quarter of theSoviet Western Front) were killed or taken captive there, with many sufferingsevere mistreatment.[100][101] After its conquest, most of the Ukrainian SSR was organised within theReichskommissariat Ukraine, with the intention of exploiting its resources and eventual German settlement. Some western Ukrainians, who had only joined the Soviet Union in 1939, hailed the Germans as liberators, but that did not last long as the Nazis made little attempt to exploit dissatisfaction with Stalinist policies.[102] Instead, the Nazis preserved the collective-farm system, carried outgenocidal policies againstJews,deported millions of people to work in Germany, and began a depopulation programme to prepare for German colonisation.[102] They blockaded the transport of food on the Dnieper River.[103]
Although the majority of Ukrainians fought in or alongside the Red Army andSoviet resistance,[104] in Western Ukraine an independentUkrainian Insurgent Army movement arose (UPA, 1942). It was created as the armed forces of the undergroundOrganisation of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN).[105][106] Both organisations, the OUN and the UPA, supported the goal of anindependent Ukrainian state on the territory with a Ukrainian ethnic majority. Although this brought conflict with Nazi Germany, at times theMelnyk wing of the OUN allied with the Nazi forces. From mid-1943 until the end of the war, the UPA carried outmassacres of ethnic Poles in the Volhynia andEastern Galicia regions, killing around 100,000 Polish civilians, which brought reprisals.[107][108] These organised massacres were an attempt by the OUN to create a homogeneous Ukrainian state without a Polish minority living within its borders, and to prevent the post-war Polish state from asserting its sovereignty over areas that had been part of pre-war Poland.[109] After the war, the UPA continued to fight the USSR until the 1950s.[110][111] At the same time, theUkrainian Liberation Army, another nationalist movement, fought alongside the Nazis.[112]
Kyiv suffered significant damage duringWorld War II, and was occupied by theGermans from 19 September 1941 until 6 November 1943
In total, the number of ethnic Ukrainians who fought in the ranks of the Soviet Army is estimated from 4.5 million[104] to 7 million;[113][e] half of thePro-Soviet partisan guerrilla resistance units, which counted up to 500,000 troops in 1944, were also Ukrainian.[114] Generally, the Ukrainian Insurgent Army's figures are unreliable, with figures ranging anywhere from 15,000 to as many as 100,000 fighters.[115][116]
The vast majority of the fighting in World War II took place on theEastern Front.[117] Thetotal losses inflicted upon the Ukrainian population during the war are estimated at 6 million,[118][119] including an estimated one and a half million Jews killed by theEinsatzgruppen,[120] sometimes with the help of local collaborators. Of the estimated 8.6 million Soviet troop losses,[121][122][123] 1.4 million were ethnicUkrainians.[121][123][e][f] TheVictory Day is celebrated as one of eleven Ukrainian national holidays.[124]
The republic was heavily damaged by the war, and it required significant efforts to recover. More than 700 cities and towns and 28,000 villages were destroyed.[125] The situation was worsened by afamine in 1946–1947, which was caused by a drought and the wartime destruction of infrastructure, killing at least tens of thousands of people.[119] In 1945, the Ukrainian SSR became one of the founding members of theUnited Nations (UN),[126] part of a special agreement at theYalta Conference, and, alongside Belarus, had voting rights in the UN even though they were not independent.[127][128] Moreover, Ukraine once more expanded its borders as it annexedZakarpattia, and the population became much more homogenised due to post-war population transfers, most of which, as in the case ofGermans andCrimean Tatars, were forced. As of 1 January 1953, Ukrainians were second only to Russians among adult "special deportees", comprising 20% of the total.[129]
By 1950, the republic had fully surpassed pre-war levels of industry and production.[132] Soviet Ukraine soon became a European leader in industrial production[133] and an important centre of the Sovietarms industry and high-tech research, though heavy industry still had an outsided influence.[134] The Soviet government invested in hydroelectric and nuclear power projects to cater to the energy demand that the development carried. On 26 April 1986, however, a reactor in theChernobyl Nuclear Power Plant exploded, resulting in theChernobyl disaster, the worstnuclear reactor accident in history.[135]
Mikhail Gorbachev pursued a policy of limited liberalisation of public life, known asperestroika, and attempted to reform astagnating economy. The latter failed, but the democratisation of the Soviet Union fuelled nationalist and separatist tendencies among the ethnic minorities, including Ukrainians.[136] As part of the so-calledparade of sovereignties, on 16 July 1990, the newly electedSupreme Soviet of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic adopted theDeclaration of State Sovereignty of Ukraine.[137] After afailed coup by some Communist leaders in Moscow at deposing Gorbachov, outright independence was proclaimed on 24 August 1991.[138] It was approved by 92% of the Ukrainian electorate in areferendum on 1 December.[139] Ukraine's newPresident, Leonid Kravchuk, went on to sign theBelavezha Accords and made Ukraine a founding member of the much looserCommonwealth of Independent States (CIS),[140] though Ukraine never became a full member of the latter as it did not ratify the agreement founding CIS.[141] These documents sealed the fate of the Soviet Union, which formally voted itself out of existence on 26 December.[142]
Ukraine was initially viewed as having favourable economic conditions in comparison to the other regions of the Soviet Union,[143] though it was one of the poorer Soviet republics by the time of the dissolution.[144] However, during its transition to the market economy, the country experienced deeper economic slowdown than almost all of the otherformer Soviet Republics. During the recession, between 1991 and 1999, Ukraine lost 60% of its GDP[145][146] and suffered fromhyperinflation that peaked at 10,000% in 1993.[147] The situation only stabilised well after the new currency, thehryvnia, fell sharply in late 1998 partially as a fallout from theRussian debt default earlier that year.[148] The legacy of the economic policies of the nineties was the mass privatisation of state property that created a class of extremely powerful and rich individuals known as theoligarchs.[144] The country then fell into a series of sharp recessions as a result of theGreat Recession,[144] the start of theRusso-Ukrainian War in 2014,[149] and finally, thefull-scale invasion by Russia in starting from 24 February 2022.[150] Ukraine's economy in general underperformed since the time independence came due to pervasivecorruption and mismanagement,[151] which, particularly in the 1990s, led to protests and organised strikes.[152] The war with Russia impeded meaningful economic recovery in the 2010s,[153] while efforts to combat theCOVID-19 pandemic, which arrived in 2020, were made much harder bylow vaccination rates[154] and, later in the pandemic, by the ongoing invasion.[155]
From the political perspective, one of the defining features of thepolitics of Ukraine is that for most of the time, it has been divided along two issues: the relation between Ukraine, theWest and Russia, and the classicalleft-right divide.[156] The first two presidents, Kravchuk andLeonid Kuchma, tended to balance the competing visions of Ukraine,[157] thoughYushchenko andYanukovych were generally pro-Western and pro-Russian, respectively. There were two major protests against Yanukovych: theOrange Revolution in 2004, when tens of thousands of people went in protest ofelection rigging in his favour (Yushchenko was eventually elected president), and another one in the winter of 2013/2014, when more gathered on theEuromaidan to oppose Yanukovych's refusal to sign theEuropean Union–Ukraine Association Agreement. By the end of the protests on 21 February 2014, he fled from Ukraine and was removed by the parliament in what is termed theRevolution of Dignity, but Russia refused to recognise the interim pro-Western government, calling it ajunta and denouncing the events as a coup d'état sponsored by the United States.[158][159][160]
Despite the signing of theBudapest memorandum in 1994, in which Ukraine agreed to hand overnuclear weapons in exchange for guarantees of security and territorial integrity, Russia reacted violently to these developments andstarted a war against its western neighbour. In late February and early March 2014, itannexed Crimea using itsNavy inSevastopol as well as the so- calledlittle green men; after this succeeded, it then launched aproxy war in the Donbas via the breakawayDonetsk People's Republic andLuhansk People's Republic.[161] The first months of the conflict with the Russian-backed separatists were fluid, but Russian forces then started an open invasion in Donbas on 24 August 2014. Together they pushed back Ukrainian troops to the frontline established in February 2015, i.e. after Ukrainian troopswithdrew from Debaltseve.[162] The conflict remained in a sort offrozen state until the early hours of 24 February 2022,[163] when Russiainvaded.[164] A year later, Russian troops controlled about 17% of Ukraine's internationally recognised territory, which constitutes 94% ofLuhansk Oblast, 73% ofKherson Oblast, 72% ofZaporizhzhia Oblast, 54% ofDonetsk Oblast and all of Crimea,[165] though Russia failed with its initial plan, with Ukrainian troops recapturing some territory in counteroffensives.[166]
The military conflict with Russia shifted the government's policy towards the West. Shortly after Yanukovych fled Ukraine, the country signed the EU association agreement in June 2014, and its citizens were granted visa-free travel to the European Union three years later. In January 2019, theOrthodox Church of Ukraine was recognised as independent of Moscow, which reversed the 1686 decision of the patriarch of Constantinople and dealt a further blow to Moscow's influence in Ukraine.[167] Finally, amid a full-scale war with Russia, Ukraine was grantedcandidate status to the European Union on 23 June 2022.[168] A broad anti-corruption drive began in early 2023 with the resignations of several deputy ministers and regional heads during a reshuffle of the government.[169]
Topographic map of Ukraine with borders and cities
Ukraine is thesecond-largest European country, after Russia, and the largest country entirely in Europe. Lying between latitudes44° and53° N, and longitudes22° and41° E., it is mostly in theEast European Plain. Ukraine covers an area of 603,550 square kilometres (233,030 sq mi), with a coastline of 2,782 kilometres (1,729 mi).[45]
The landscape of Ukraine consists mostly of fertilesteppes (plains with few trees) and plateaus, crossed by rivers such as the Dnieper,Seversky Donets, Dniester and theSouthern Bug as they flow south into the Black Sea and the smallerSea of Azov. To the southwest, theDanube Delta forms the border with Romania. Ukraine's regions have diverse geographic features, ranging from the highlands to the lowlands. The country's only mountains are theCarpathian Mountains in the west, of which the highest isHoverla at 2,061 metres (6,762 ft), and the Crimean Mountains, in the extreme south along the coast.[170]
Ukraine also has a number of highland regions such as theVolyn-Podillia Upland (in the west) and the Near-Dnipro Upland (on the right bank of the Dnieper). To the east there are the south-western spurs of theCentral Russian Upland over which runs the border with Russia. Near the Sea of Azov are the Donets Ridge and the Near Azov Upland. Thesnow melt from the mountains feeds the rivers and theirwaterfalls.
Ukraine is in the mid-latitudes, and generally has acontinental climate, except for its southern coasts, which havecold semi-arid andhumid subtropical climates.[185] Average annual temperatures range from 5.5–7 °C (41.9–44.6 °F) in the north, to 11–13 °C (51.8–55.4 °F) in the south.[186]Precipitation is highest in the west and north and lowest in the east and southeast.[186] Western Ukraine, particularly in the Carpathian Mountains, receives around 120 centimetres (47.2 in) of precipitation annually, while Crimea and the coastal areas of the Black Sea receive around 40 centimetres (15.7 in).[186]
Ukraine has 457 cities, of which 176 are designated as oblast-class, 279 as smallerraion-class cities, and two as special legal status cities. There are also 886 urban-type settlements and 28,552 villages.[196]
The Constitution of Ukraine was adopted and ratified at the 5th session of theVerkhovna Rada, the parliament of Ukraine, on 28 June 1996.[199] The constitution was passed with 315 ayes out of 450 votes possible (300 ayes minimum).[199] All other laws and other normative[clarification needed] legal acts of Ukraine must conform to the constitution. The right to amend the constitution through a special legislative procedure is vested exclusively in the parliament. The only body that may interpret the constitution and determine whether legislation conforms to it is theConstitutional Court of Ukraine. Since 1996, thepublic holidayConstitution Day is celebrated on 28 June.[200][201] On 7 February 2019, the Verkhovna Rada voted to amend the constitution to state Ukraine's strategic objectives as joining theEuropean Union andNATO.[202]
The president is elected by popular vote for a five-year term and is the formalhead of state.[203]Ukraine's legislative branch includes the 450-seatunicameral parliament, the Verkhovna Rada.[204] The parliament is primarily responsible for the formation of the executive branch and theCabinet of Ministers, headed by theprime minister.[205] The president retains the authority to nominate the ministers of foreign affairs and of defence for parliamentary approval, as well as the power to appoint theprosecutor general and the head of theSecurity Service.[206]
Laws, acts of the parliament and the cabinet, presidential decrees, and acts of theCrimean parliament may be abrogated by the Constitutional Court, should they be found to violate the constitution. Other normative acts are subject to judicial review. TheSupreme Court is the main body in the system of courts of general jurisdiction.Local self-government is officially guaranteed. Local councils and city mayors are popularly elected and exercise control over local budgets. The heads of regional and district administrations are appointed by the president in accordance with the proposals of the prime minister.[207]
Martial law was declared when Russia invaded in February 2022,[208] and continues.[209][210] The courts enjoy legal, financial and constitutional freedom guaranteed by Ukrainian law since 2002. Judges are largely well protected from dismissal (except for gross misconduct). Court justices are appointed by presidential decree for an initial period of five years, after which Ukraine's Supreme Council confirms their positions for life. Although there are still problems, the system is considered to have been much improved since Ukraine's independence in 1991. The Supreme Court is regarded as an independent and impartial body, and has on several occasions ruled against the Ukrainian government. TheWorld Justice Project ranks Ukraine 66 out of 99 countries surveyed in its annual Rule of Law Index.[211]
Prosecutors in Ukraine have greater powers than in most European countries, and according to theEuropean Commission for Democracy through Law "the role and functions of the Prosecutor's Office is not in accordance withCouncil of Europe standards".[212] Theconviction rate is over 99%,[213] equal to the conviction rate of the Soviet Union, with suspects often being incarcerated for long periods before trial.[214]
In 2010,President Yanukovych formed an expert group to make recommendations on how to "clean up the current mess and adopt a law on court organisation".[214] One day later, he stated "We can no longer disgrace our country with such a court system."[214] The criminal judicial system and the prison system of Ukraine remain quite punitive.[215]
Since 2010 court proceedings can be held in Russian by mutual consent of the parties. Citizens unable to speak Ukrainian or Russian may use their native language or the services of a translator.[216][217] Previously all court proceedings had to be held in Ukrainian.[215]
Law enforcement agencies are controlled by theMinistry of Internal Affairs. They consist primarily of thenational police force and various specialised units and agencies such as theState Border Guard and theCoast Guard services. Law enforcement agencies, particularly the police, faced criticism for their heavy handling of the 2004 Orange Revolution. Many thousands of police officers were stationed throughout the capital, primarily to dissuade protesters from challenging the state's authority but also to provide a quick reaction force in case of need; most officers were armed.[218]
From 1999 to 2001, Ukraine served as a non-permanent member of theUN Security Council. Historically, Soviet Ukraine joined the United Nations in 1945 as one of the original members following a Western compromise with the Soviet Union.[219] Ukraine has consistently supported peaceful, negotiated settlements to disputes. It has participated in the quadripartite talks on the conflict in Moldova and promoted a peaceful resolution to the conflict in thepost-Soviet state of Georgia. Ukraine also has made contributions to UNpeacekeeping operations since 1992.[220]
Ukraine considers Euro-Atlantic integration its primary foreign policy objective,[221] but in practice it has always balanced its relationship with the European Union and the United States with strong ties to Russia. The European Union'sPartnership and Cooperation Agreement (PCA) with Ukraine went into force in 1998. The European Union (EU) has encouraged Ukraine to implement the PCA fully before discussions begin on an association agreement, issued at the EU Summit in December 1999 inHelsinki, recognises Ukraine's long-term aspirations but does not discuss association.[221]
Ukraine is the most active member of thePartnership for Peace (PfP). All major political parties in Ukraine support full eventual integration into the European Union.[222] The Association Agreement between Ukraine and the European Union was signed in 2014.[223] Ukraine long had close ties with all its neighbours, butRussia–Ukraine relations rapidly deteriorated in 2014 due to the annexation of Crimea, energy dependence and payment disputes.
In 2020, inLublin, Lithuania, Poland and Ukraine created theLublin Triangle initiative, which aims to create further cooperation between the three historical countries of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and further Ukraine's integration and accession to theEU and NATO.[227]
In 2021, theAssociation Trio was formed by signing a joint memorandum between theForeign Ministers of Georgia,Moldova andUkraine. The Association Trio is a tripartite format for enhanced cooperation, coordination, and dialogue between the three countries (that have signed the Association Agreement with the EU) with the European Union on issues of common interest related toEuropean integration, enhancing cooperation within the framework of theEastern Partnership, and committing to the prospect of joining the European Union.[228] As of 2021, Ukraine was preparing to formally apply for EU membership in 2024, in order to join the European Union in the 2030s,[229] however, with the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022, Ukrainian president Volodymyr Zelenskyy requested that the country be admitted to the EU immediately.[230][failed verification] Candidate status was granted in June 2022.[168] In recent years, Ukraine has dramatically strengthened its ties with theUnited States.[13][12]
After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Ukraine inherited a 780,000-man military force on its territory, equipped with the third-largestnuclear weapons arsenal in the world.[231][232] In 1992, Ukraine signed theLisbon Protocol in which the country agreed to give up all nuclear weapons to Russia for disposal and to join theNuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty as a non-nuclear weapon state. By 1996 the country had become free of nuclear weapons.[231]
Ukraine took consistent steps toward reduction of conventional weapons. It signed theTreaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe, which called for reduction of tanks, artillery, and armoured vehicles (army forces were reduced to 300,000). The country planned to convert the currentconscript-based military into a professionalvolunteer military.[233][better source needed] Ukraine's current military consist of 196,600 active personnel and around 900,000 reservists.[234]
Ukraine played an increasing role in peacekeeping operations. In 2014, the Ukrainian frigateHetman Sagaidachniy joined the European Union's counter piracyOperation Atalanta and was part of the EU Naval Force off the coast ofSomalia for two months.[235] Ukrainian troops were deployed inKosovo as part of theUkrainian-Polish Battalion.[236] In 2003–2005, a Ukrainian unit was deployed as part of themultinational force in Iraq under Polish command.[237] Military units of other states participated in multinational military exercises with Ukrainian forces in Ukraine regularly, includingU.S. military forces.[238]
Following independence, Ukraine declared itself a neutral state.[10] The country had a limited military partnership with Russian Federation and other CIS countries and has had a partnership with NATO since 1994. In the 2000s, the government was leaning towards NATO, and deeper cooperation with the alliance was set by the NATO-Ukraine Action Plan signed in 2002. It was later agreed that the question of joining NATO should be answered by a national referendum at some point in the future.[233] Deposed President Viktor Yanukovych considered the then level of co-operation between Ukraine and NATO sufficient, and was against Ukraine joining NATO. During the2008 Bucharest summit, NATO declared that Ukraine would eventually become a member of NATO when it meets the criteria for accession.
As part of modernisation after the beginning of theRusso-Ukrainian War in 2014, junior officers were allowed to take more initiative and aterritorial defence force of volunteers was established.[239] Various defensive weapons includingdrones were supplied by many countries, but not fighter jets.[240] During the first few weeks of the2022 Russian invasion the military found it difficult to defend against shelling, missiles and high level bombing; but light infantry used shoulder-mounted weapons effectively to destroy tanks, armoured vehicles and low-flying aircraft.[241] In August 2023, the U.S. officials estimated that up to 70,000 Ukrainian soldiers were killed and 100,000 to 120,000 wounded during the Russian invasion of Ukraine.[242]
Ukraine (2021) — major cities and adjacent countries
The system of Ukrainian subdivisions reflects the country's status as aunitary state (as stated in the country's constitution) with unified legal andadministrative regimes for each unit.
Populated places in Ukraine are split into two categories: urban and rural. Urban populated places are split further into cities andurban-type settlements (a Soviet administrative invention), while rural populated places consist of villages and settlements (a generally used term). All cities have a certain degree of self-rule depending on their significance such as national significance (as in the case of Kyiv and Sevastopol), regional significance (within each oblast or autonomous republic) or district significance (all the rest of cities). A city's significance depends on several factors such as its population, socio-economic and historical importance and infrastructure.
In 2021, the average salary in Ukraine reached its highest level at almost₴14,300 (US$525) per month.[249] About 1% of Ukrainians livedbelow the national poverty line in 2019.[250] Unemployment in Ukraine was 4.5% in 2019.[251] In 2019 5–15% of the Ukrainian population were categorized as middle class.[252] In 2020 Ukraine'sgovernment debt was roughly 50% of its nominal GDP.[253][254]
In 2021 mineral commodities and light industry were important sectors.[254] Ukraine produces nearly all types of transportation vehicles andspacecraft.[255][256][257] TheEuropean Union is the country's main trade partner, and remittances from Ukrainians working abroad are important.[254]
Agriculture
Wheat crop in Spasov village, Rivne Oblast, Ukraine.
Ukraine is among the world's top agricultural producers and exporters and is often described as the "bread basket of Europe". During the 2020/21 international wheat marketing season (July–June), it ranked as the sixth largest wheat exporter, accounting for nine percent of world wheat trade.[258] The country is also a major global exporter ofmaize, barley and rapeseed. In 2020/21, it accounted for 12 percent of global trade inmaize andbarley and for 14 percent of worldrapeseed exports. Its trade share is even greater in the sunflower oil sector, with the country accounting for about 50 percent of world exports in 2020/2021.[258]
According to theFood and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO), further to causing the loss of lives and increasing humanitarian needs, the likely disruptions caused by theRusso-Ukrainian War to Ukraine's grain and oilseed sectors, could jeopardise the food security of many countries, especially those that are highly dependent on Ukraine and Russia for their food and fertiliser imports.[259] Several of these countries fall into theLeast Developed Country (LDC) group, while many others belong to the group ofLow-Income Food-Deficit Countries (LIFDCs).[260][261] For exampleEritrea sourced 47 percent of its wheat imports in 2021 from Ukraine. Overall, more than 30 nations depend on Ukraine and the Russian Federation for over 30 percent of their wheat import needs, many of them in North Africa and Western and Central Asia.[258]
Before theRusso-Ukrainian war the number of tourists visiting Ukraine was eighth in Europe, according toUN Tourismrankings.[262] Ukraine has numerous tourist attractions: mountain ranges suitable forskiing, hiking and fishing; theBlack Sea coastline as a popular summer destination;nature reserves of differentecosystems; and churches,castle ruins and other architectural and park landmarks.Kyiv,Lviv,Odesa andKamianets-Podilskyi were Ukraine's principal tourist centres, each offering many historical landmarks and extensivehospitality infrastructure. TheSeven Wonders of Ukraine andSeven Natural Wonders of Ukraine are selections of the most important landmarks of Ukraine, chosen by Ukrainian experts and an Internet-based public vote. Tourism was the mainstay of Crimea's economy before a major fall in visitor numbers following the Russian annexation in 2014.[263]
Many roads and bridges were destroyed, and international maritime travel was blocked by the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.[247] Before that it was mainly through thePort of Odesa, from where ferries sailed regularly toIstanbul,Varna andHaifa. The largest ferry company operating these routes wasUkrferry.[264] There are over 1,600 km (1,000 mi) ofnavigable waterways on 7 rivers, mostly on theDanube,Dnieper andPripyat. All Ukraine's rivers freeze over in winter, limiting navigation.[265]
Energy in Ukraine is mainly fromgas andcoal, followed bynuclear thenoil.[172] The coal industry has been disrupted by conflict.[270] Most gas and oil is imported, but since 2015energy policy has prioritised diversifying energy supply.[271]
Some energy infrastructure was destroyed in the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.[274][275] The contract to transitRussian gas expires at the end of 2024.[276]
Key officials may useStarlink as backup.[279] The IT industry contributed almost 5 per cent to Ukraine's GDP in 2021[280] and in 2022 continued both inside and outside the country.[281]
Before the2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine the country had an estimated population of over 41 million people, and was theeighth-most populous country in Europe. It is aheavily urbanized country, and its industrial regions in the east and southeast are the most densely populated—about 67% of its total population lives in urban areas.[282] At that time Ukraine had apopulation density of 69.5 inhabitants per square kilometre (180 inhabitants/sq mi), and the overalllife expectancy in the country at birth was 73 years (68 years for males and 77.8 years for females).[283]
Following thedissolution of the Soviet Union, Ukraine's population hit a peak of roughly 52 million in 1993. However, due to itsdeath rate exceeding itsbirth rate, mass emigration, poor living conditions, and low-quality health care,[284][285] the total population decreased by 6.6 million, or 12.8% from the same year to 2014.
Outside the former Soviet Union, the largest source of incoming immigrants in Ukraine's post-independence period was from four Asian countries, namely China, India, Pakistan and Afghanistan.[289] In the late 2010s 1.4 million Ukrainians wereinternally displaced due to thewar in Donbas,[290] and in early 2022, over 4.1 million fled the country in the aftermath of the2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, causing theUkrainian refugee crisis.[291] Most male Ukrainian nationals aged 18 to 60 were denied exit from Ukraine.[292] The Ukrainian government estimates that the population in the regions controlled by Ukraine was 25 to 27 million in 2024.[293]
According to Ukraine's constitution, thestate language isUkrainian.[294]Russian is widely spoken in the country, especially in eastern and southern Ukraine.[294][295] Most native Ukrainian speakers know Russian as a second language.[294] Russian was thede facto dominant language of the Soviet Union but Ukrainian also held official status in the republic,[296] and in the schools of theUkrainian SSR, learning Ukrainian was mandatory.[294]
Linguistic map of Ukraine showing most common native language by city, town, or village council, according to the2001 census
Effective in August 2012,a new law on regional languages entitled any local language spoken by at least a 10 percent minority be declared official within that area.[297] Within weeks, Russian was declared a regional language of several southern and easternoblasts (provinces) and cities.[298] Russian could then be used in the administrative office work and documents of those places.[299][300]
In 2014, following theRevolution of Dignity, theUkrainian Parliament voted to repeal the law on regional languages, making Ukrainian the sole state language at all levels; however, the repeal was not signed by actingPresident Turchynov or by President Poroshenko.[301][302][303] In 2019, the law allowing for official use of regional languages was found unconstitutional.[304] According to the Council of Europe, this act fails to achieve fair protection of thelinguistic rights ofminorities.[305]
Ukrainian is the primary language used in the vast majority of Ukraine. 67% of Ukrainians speak Ukrainian as their primary language, while 30% speak Russian as their primary language.[306] In eastern and southern Ukraine, Russian is the primary language in some cities, while Ukrainian is used in rural areas.Hungarian is spoken inZakarpattia Oblast.[307] There is no consensus among scholars whetherRusyn, also spoken in Zakarpattia, is a distinct language or a dialect of Ukrainian.[308] The Ukrainian government does not recognise Rusyn andRusyns as a distinct language and people.[309]
For a large part of the Soviet era, the number of Ukrainian speakers declined from generation to generation, and by the mid-1980s, the usage of the Ukrainian language in public life had decreased significantly.[310] Following independence, the government of Ukraine began restoring the use of the Ukrainian language in schools and government through a policy ofUkrainisation.[311][312] Today, most foreign films and TV programmes, including Russian ones, are subtitled or dubbed in Ukrainian.[313] Ukraine's 2017education law bars primary education in public schools in grade five and up in any language but Ukrainian.[314][315]
The Ukrainiandiaspora comprisesUkrainians and their descendants who live outside Ukraine around the world, especially those who maintain some kind of connection to the land of their ancestors and maintain their feeling of Ukrainian national identity within their own local community.[316] The Ukrainian diaspora is found throughout numerous regions worldwide including otherpost-Soviet states as well as inCanada,[317] and other countries such asPoland,[318]the United States,[319] the UK[320][321] andBrazil.[322]
The 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine has led to theUkrainian refugee crisis in which millions of Ukrainian civilians moved to neighbouring countries. Most crossed into Poland, Slovakia, and the Czech Republic, and others proceeded to at least temporarily settle in Hungary, Moldova, Germany, Austria, Romania and other European countries.[323]
This section needs to beupdated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.(March 2022)
Ukraine's healthcare system is state subsidised and freely available to all Ukrainian citizens and registered residents. However, it is not compulsory to be treated in a state-run hospital as a number of private medical complexes do exist nationwide.[331] The public sector employs most healthcare professionals, with those working for private medical centres typically also retaining their state employment as they are mandated to provide care at public health facilities on a regular basis.[332]
All of Ukraine's medical service providers and hospitals are subordinate to theMinistry of Healthcare, which provides oversight and scrutiny of general medical practice as well as being responsible for the day-to-day administration of the healthcare system. Despite this, standards of hygiene and patient-care have fallen.[333]
Ukraine faces a number of major public health issues[citation needed] and is considered to be in a demographic crisis because of its high death rate, low birth rate, and high emigration.[334] A factor contributing to the high death rate is a highmortality rate among working-age males from preventable causes such asalcohol poisoning and smoking.[335]
Active reformation of Ukraine's healthcare system was initiated right after the appointment ofUlana Suprun as a head of theMinistry of Healthcare.[336] Assisted by deputy Pavlo Kovtoniuk, Suprun first changed the distribution of finances in healthcare.[337] Funds must follow the patient. General practitioners will provide basic care for patients. The patient will have the right to choose one. Emergency medical service is considered to be fully funded by the state.Emergency Medicine Reform is also an important part of the healthcare reform. In addition, patients who suffer from chronic diseases, which cause a high toll of disability and mortality, are provided with free or low-price medicine.[338]
According to theUkrainian constitution, access to free education is granted to all citizens. Complete general secondary education is compulsory in the state schools which constitute the overwhelming majority. Free higher education in state and communal educational establishments is provided on a competitive basis.[339]
Because of the Soviet Union's emphasis on total access of education for all citizens, which continues today, theliteracy rate is an estimated 99.4%.[45] Since 2005, an eleven-year school programme has been replaced with a twelve-year one: primary education takes four years to complete (starting at age six), middle education (secondary) takes five years to complete; upper secondary then takes three years.[340] Students in the 12th grade take Government tests, which are also referred to as school-leaving exams. These tests are later used for university admissions.
Among the oldest is also theLviv University, founded in 1661. More higher education institutions were set up in the 19th century, beginning with universities inKharkiv (1805),Kyiv (1834),Odesa (1865) andChernivtsi (1875) and a number of professional higher education institutions, e.g.:Nizhyn Historical and Philological Institute (originally established as the Gymnasium of Higher Sciences in 1805), a Veterinary Institute (1873) and aTechnological Institute (1885) inKharkiv, aPolytechnic Institute in Kyiv (1898) and a Higher Mining School (1899) inKaterynoslav. Rapid growth followed in theSoviet period. By 1988 the number of higher education institutions increased to 146 with over 850,000 students.[341]
The Ukrainian higher education system comprises higher educational establishments,scientific andmethodological facilities under national,municipal and self-governing bodies in charge of education.[342] The organisation of higher education in Ukraine is built up in accordance with the structure of education of the world's higherdeveloped countries, as is defined byUNESCO and the UN.[343]
Ukraine produces the fourth largest number ofpost-secondary graduates in Europe, while being ranked seventh in population.[344]Higher education is either state funded or private. Most universities provide subsidised housing for out-of-city students. It is common for libraries to supply required books for all registered students. Ukrainian universities confer two degrees: the bachelor's degree (4 years) and the master's degree (5–6th year), in accordance with theBologna process. Historically,Specialist degree (usually 5 years) is still also granted; it was the only degree awarded by universities in Soviet times.[345] Ukraine was ranked 60th in 2024 in theGlobal Innovation Index.[346]
Similar historical divisions also remain evident at the level of individual social identification. Attitudes toward the most important political issue, relations with Russia, differed strongly betweenLviv, identifying more withUkrainian nationalism and theUkrainian Greek Catholic Church, andDonetsk, predominantly Russian orientated and favourable to theSoviet era, while in central and southern Ukraine, as well asKyiv, such divisions were less important and there was less antipathy toward people from other regions.[353]
However, all were united by an overarching Ukrainian identity based on shared economic difficulties, showing that other attitudes are determined more by culture and politics than by demographic differences.[353][354] Surveys of regional identities in Ukraine have shown that the feeling of belonging to a "Soviet identity" is strongest in theDonbas (about 40%) and the Crimea (about 30%).[355]
A collection of traditional Ukrainian Easter eggs—pysanky. The design motifs on pysanky date back to early Slavic culturesOrthodox Christmas celebration inLviv
Ukrainian customs are heavily influenced byOrthodox Christianity, the dominant religion in the country.[365] Gender roles also tend to be more traditional, and grandparents play a greater role in bringing up children, than in the West.[366] The culture of Ukraine has also been influenced by its eastern and western neighbours, reflected in itsarchitecture, music and art.[367]
The Communist era had quite a strong effect on the art and writing of Ukraine.[368] In 1932, Stalin madesocialist realism state policy in the Soviet Union when he promulgated the decree "On the Reconstruction of Literary and Art Organisations". This greatly stifled creativity. During the 1980sglasnost (openness) was introduced and Soviet artists and writers again became free to express themselves as they wanted.[369]
The tradition of theEaster eggs, known aspysanky, has long roots in Ukraine. These eggs were drawn on with wax to create a pattern; then, the dye was applied to give the eggs their pleasant colours, the dye did not affect the previously wax-coated parts of the egg. After the entire egg was dyed, the wax was removed leaving only the colourful pattern. This tradition is thousands of years old, and precedes the arrival of Christianity to Ukraine.[376] In the city ofKolomyia near the foothills of theCarpathian Mountains, themuseum of Pysanka was built in 2000 and won a nomination as the monument of modern Ukraine in 2007, part of theSeven Wonders of Ukraine action.
During the2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine the Russians bombed the Maksymovych Scientific Library of the Taras Shevchenko Kyiv National University, Vernadsky National Library of Ukraine, the National Scientific Medical Library of Ukraine and the Kyiv city youth library.[378]
Lesya Ukrainka, one of the foremost Ukrainian women writers
TheCossacks established an independent society and popularised anew kind ofepic poem, which marked a high point of Ukrainianoral literature.[380][failed verification] These advances were then set back in the 17th and early 18th centuries, as many Ukrainian authors wrote in Russian or Polish. Nonetheless, by the late 18th century, the modern literary Ukrainian language finally emerged.[379] In 1798, the modern era of the Ukrainian literary tradition began withIvan Kotliarevsky's publication ofEneida in the Ukrainian vernacular.[381]
By the 1830s, a Ukrainianromantic literature began to develop, and the nation's most renowned cultural figure, romanticist poet-painterTaras Shevchenko emerged. Whereas Ivan Kotliarevsky is considered to be the father of literature in the Ukrainian vernacular; Shevchenko is the father of a national revival.[382]
Then, in 1863, the use of the Ukrainian language in print was effectivelyprohibited by the Russian Empire.[68] This severely curtailed literary activity in the area, and Ukrainian writers were forced to either publish their works in Russian or release them in Austrian controlledGalicia. The ban was never officially lifted, but it became obsolete after the revolution and the Bolsheviks' coming to power.[380]
Ukrainian literature continued to flourish in the early Soviet years when nearly all literary trends were approved. These policies faced a steep decline in the 1930s, when prominent representatives as well as many others were killed by theNKVD during theGreat Purge. In general around 223 writers were repressed by what was known as theExecuted Renaissance.[383] These repressions were part of Stalin's implemented policy ofsocialist realism. The doctrine did not necessarily repress the use of the Ukrainian language, but it required that writers follow a certain style in their works.
Literary freedom grew in the late 1980s and early 1990s alongside the decline and collapse of the USSR and the reestablishment of Ukrainian independence in 1991.[379]
After the union with theTsardom of Russia, architecture in Ukraine began to develop in different directions, with many structures in the larger eastern, Russian-ruled area built in the styles ofRussian architecture of that period, whilst the western region ofGalicia developed underPolish andAustro-Hungarian architectural influences. Ukrainian national motifs would eventually be used during the period of theSoviet Union and in modern independent Ukraine.[384] However, much of the contemporary architectural skyline of Ukraine is dominated by Soviet-styleKhrushchyovkas, or low-cost apartment buildings.[385]
Artisantextile arts play an important role in Ukrainian culture,[386] especially inUkrainian wedding traditions.Ukrainian embroidery,weaving and lace-making are used in traditionalfolk dress and in traditional celebrations. Ukrainian embroidery varies depending on the region of origin[387] and the designs have a long history of motifs, compositions, choice of colours and types of stitches.[388] Use of colour is very important and has roots inUkrainian folklore. Embroidery motifs found in different parts of Ukraine are preserved in theRushnyk Museum inPereiaslav.
National dress is woven and highly decorated. Weaving with handmade looms is still practised in the village of Krupove, situated inRivne Oblast. The village is the birthplace of two internationally recognised personalities in the scene of national crafts fabrication: Nina Myhailivna[389] and Uliana Petrivna.[390]
Music is a major part of Ukrainian culture, with a long history and many influences. From traditionalfolk music, toclassical andmodern rock, Ukraine has produced several internationally recognised musicians includingKirill Karabits,Okean Elzy andRuslana. Elements from traditional Ukrainian folk music made their way into Western music and even into modernjazz. Ukrainian music sometimes presents a perplexing mix of exotic melismatic singing with chordal harmony. The most striking general characteristic of authentic ethnic Ukrainian folk music is the wide use of minor modes or keys which incorporate augmented second intervals.[392]
During the Baroque period, music had a place of considerable importance in the curriculum of theKyiv-Mohyla Academy. Much of the nobility was well versed in music with many Ukrainian Cossack leaders such as (Mazepa,Paliy,Holovatyj,Sirko) being accomplished players of thekobza,bandura ortorban.
The first dedicated musical academy was set up inHlukhiv in 1738 and students were taught to sing and play violin and bandura from manuscripts. As a result, many of the earliest composers and performers within the Russian empire were ethnically Ukrainian, having been born or educated in Hlukhiv or having been closely associated with this music school.[393] Ukrainian classical music differs considerably depending on whether the composer was of Ukrainian ethnicity living in Ukraine, a composer of non-Ukrainian ethnicity who was a citizen of Ukraine, or part of theUkrainian diaspora.[394]
Since the mid-1960s, Western-influenced pop music has been growing in popularity in Ukraine. Folk singer and harmonium playerMariana Sadovska is prominent. Ukrainian pop and folk music arose with the international popularity of groups and performers likeVopli Vidoplyasova,Dakh Daughters,Dakha Brakha,Ivan Dorn andOkean Elzy.
The Ukrainian legal framework on media freedom is deemed "among the most progressive in eastern Europe", although implementation has been uneven.[395][needs update] The constitution and laws provide forfreedom of speech[396] andpress. The main regulatory authority for the broadcast media is theNational Television and Radio Broadcasting Council of Ukraine (NTRBCU), tasked with licencing media outlets and ensure their compliance with the law.[397]
Kyiv dominates the media sector in Ukraine: NationalnewspapersDen,Dzerkalo Tyzhnia, tabloids, such asThe Ukrainian Week orFocus, and television and radio are largely based there,[citation needed] althoughLviv is also a significant national media centre. The National News Agency of Ukraine,Ukrinform was founded here in 1918.BBC Ukrainian started its broadcasts in 1992.[398] As of 2022[update] 75% of the population use the internet, and social media is widely used by government and people.[399]
On 10 March 2024, creators of a documentary film20 Days in Mariupol were awarded with theOscar in the category "Best Documentary Feature Film", the first Oscar in Ukraine's history.[400]
Ukraine greatly benefited from the Soviet emphasis onphysical education. These policies left Ukraine with hundreds of stadia, swimming pools, gymnasia and many other athletic facilities.[401] The most popular sport isfootball. The top professional league is theVyscha Liha ("premier league").
Ukrainianboxers are amongst the best in the world.[402] Since becoming the undisputed cruiserweight champion in 2018,Oleksandr Usyk has also gone on to win the unified WBA (Super), IBF, WBO and IBO heavyweight titles. This feat made him one of only three boxers to have unified the cruiserweight world titles and become a world heavyweight champion.[403] The brothersVitali andWladimir Klitschko are formerheavyweight world champions who held multiple world titles throughout their careers. Also hailing from Ukraine isVasyl Lomachenko, a2008 and2012 Olympic gold medalist. He is theunifiedlightweight world champion who ties the record for winning a world title in the fewest professional fights; three. As of September 2018, he is ranked as the world's best active boxer,pound for pound, byESPN.[404]
Sergey Bubka held the record in thePole vault from 1993 to 2014; with great strength, speed and gymnastic abilities, he was voted the world's best athlete on several occasions.[405][406]
Ukraine is often called the "Breadbasket of Europe", and its plentifulgrain andcereal resources such asrye andwheat play an important part in its cuisine; essential in making various kinds of bread.[414][415]Chernozem, the country's black-colored highly fertile soil, produces some of the world's most flavorful crops.[416]
^Which also has the unrecognised breakaway stateTransnistria
^The Ukrainian territories on the Sea of Azov have been occupied and annexed by Russia in 2022, but the annexation has been condemned by the international community.
^abThese figures are likely to be much higher, as they do not include Ukrainians of other nationalities or Ukrainian Jews, but onlyethnic Ukrainians, from the Ukrainian SSR.
^Особливості Релігійного І Церковно-Релігійного Самовизначення Українських Громадян: Тенденції 2010–2018 [Features of Religious and Church – Religious Self-Determination of Ukrainian Citizens: Trends 2010–2018](PDF) (in Ukrainian), Kyiv:Razumkov Center in collaboration with the All-Ukrainian Council of Churches, 22 April 2018, pp. 12, 13, 16, 31,archived(PDF) from the original on 26 April 2018 Sample of 2,018 respondents aged 18 years and over, interviewed 23–28 March 2018 in all regions of Ukraine except Crimea and the occupied territories of the Donetsk and Luhansk regions.
^"Ukraine".The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. 23 March 2022.
^Magocsi, Paul Robert (16 July 1996).A History of Ukraine.University of Toronto Press. pp. 39–42.ISBN9780802078209. Retrieved16 July 2018 – via Google Books.Whether the Antes created a state structure or existed simply as tribal groupings, their influence was broken after the arrival of the Avars during the second half of the sixth century. With the Avar presence, the Antes disappeared; they are last mentioned in historical sources at the beginning of the seventh century (602).
^Rowell, C. S. (1994).Lithuania Ascending: A Pagan Empire Within East-Central Europe, 1295–1345. Cambridge Studies in Medieval Life and Thought: Fourth Series.Cambridge University Press.ISBN9780521450119.
^abRemy, Johannes (March–June 2007). "The Valuev Circular and Censorship of Ukrainian Publications in the Russian Empire (1863–1876): Intention and Practice".Canadian Slavonic Papers.47 (1/2):87–110.doi:10.1080/00085006.2007.11092432.JSTOR40871165.S2CID128680044.
^Kravčenko, Volodymyr Vasylʹovyč (2022).The Ukrainian-Russian borderland: history versus geography. Montreal & Kingston London Chicago: McGill-Queen's University Press. pp. 26–35.ISBN978-0-2280-1199-6.
^Timothy Snyder. (2003)The Causes of Ukrainian-Polish Ethnic Cleansing 1943, The Past and Present Society: Oxford University Press. p. 202
^Timothy Snyder. (2005).Sketches from a Secret War: A Polish Artist's Mission to Liberate Soviet Ukraine. New Haven: Yale University Press. pp. 32–33, 152–162
^Service, Robert (1997).A History of Twentieth-Century Russia. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. pp. 124–125.ISBN0674403487.
^Christopher Gilley, 'The "Change of Signposts" in the Ukrainian emigration: Mykhailo Hrushevskyi and the Foreign Delegation of the Ukrainian Party of Socialist Revolutionaries',Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas, Vol. 54, 2006, No. 3, pp. 345–74
^Wheatcroft, Stephen G. (2007). "Agency and Terror: Yevdokimov and Mass Killing in Stalin's Great Terror".Australian Journal of Politics and History.53 (1):20–43.doi:10.1111/j.1467-8497.2007.00440.x.ISSN0004-9522. Full text inEbsco. See also Robert Conquest,The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet collectivization and the terror-famine (1986). Mark B. Tauger, "The 1932 Harvest and the Famine of 1933"Slavic Review, Vol. 50, No. 1 (Spring, 1991), pp. 70–89, notes the harvest was unusually poor.online in JSTOR;R. W. Davies, Mark B. Tauger,S. G. Wheatcroft, "Stalin, Grain Stocks and the Famine of 1932–1933",Slavic Review, Vol. 54, No. 3 (Autumn, 1995), pp. 642–657online in JSTOR; Michael Ellman. "Stalin and the Soviet famine of 1932–33 Revisited",Europe-Asia Studies, Volume 59, Issue 4 June 2007, pages 663–693.
^abКривошеев Г. Ф.,Россия и СССР в войнах XX века: потери вооруженных сил. Статистическое исследование (Krivosheev G. F.,Russia and the USSR in the wars of the 20th century: losses of the Armed Forces. A Statistical Study)(in Russian)
^"United Nations". U.S. Department of State. Retrieved22 September 2014.Voting procedures and the veto power of permanent members of the Security Council were finalized at theYalta Conference in 1945 when Roosevelt and Stalin agreed that the veto would not prevent discussions by the Security Council. Roosevelt agreed to General Assembly membership for Ukraine and Byelorussia while reserving the right, which was never exercised, to seek two more votes for the United States.
^"United Nations". U.S. Department of State. Retrieved22 September 2014.Voting procedures and the veto power of permanent members of the Security Council were finalized at the Yalta Conference in 1945 when Roosevelt and Stalin agreed that the veto would not prevent discussions by the Security Council. In April 1945, new U.S. President Truman agreed to General Assembly membership for Ukraine and Byelorussia while reserving the right, which was never exercised, to seek two more votes for the United States.
^Вибори народних депутатів України 2012 [The Elections of People's Deputies of Ukraine 2012] (in Ukrainian). Central Election Commission of Ukraine. 28 November 2012. Archived fromthe original on 16 October 2012. Retrieved8 March 2013.
^"Gorbachev, Mikhail". Encyclopædia Britannica (fee required). Archived fromthe original on 18 December 2007. Retrieved30 July 2008.Under his new policy of glasnost ("openness"), a major cultural thaw took place: freedoms of expression and of information were significantly expanded; the press and broadcasting were allowed unprecedented candour in their reportage and criticism; and the country's legacy of Stalinist totalitarian rule was eventually completely repudiated by the government
^International Olympic Committee."Mr. Sergey BUBKA".Official website of the Olympic Movement. Retrieved27 May 2010.... voted world's best athlete on several occasions.
^Aidarbekova, Sabina; Aider, Mohammad (April 2022). "Production of Ryazhenka, a traditional Ukrainian fermented baked milk, by using electro-activated whey as supplementing ingredient and source of lactulose".Food Bioscience.46 (101526).Elsevier.doi:10.1016/j.fbio.2021.101526.ISSN2212-4292.
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Kuzio, Taras.Ukraine: State and Nation Building, Routledge, 1998online edition
Shamshur O. V., Ishevskaya T. I.,Multilingual education as a factor of inter-ethnic relations: the case of the Ukraine, inLanguage Education for Intercultural Communication, by D. E. Ager, George Muskens, Sue Wright, Multilingual Matters, 1993,ISBN1-85359-204-8
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Redlich, Shimon.Together and Apart in Brzezany: Poles, Jews, and Ukrainians, 1919–1945. Indiana U. Press, 2002. 202 pp.
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