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Types of socialism include a range ofeconomic andsocial systems characterised bysocial ownership anddemocratic control[1][2][3] of themeans of production[4][5] andorganizational self-management of enterprises[6][7] as well as the political theories and movements associated withsocialism.[8][better source needed] Social ownership may refer to forms ofpublic,collective orcooperative ownership, or tocitizen ownership of equity[9] in whichsurplus value goes to theworking class and hencesociety as a whole.[10] There are many varieties of socialism and no single definition encapsulates all of them,[11] but social ownership is a common element shared by its various forms.[1][12][13] Socialists disagree about the degree to which social control or regulation of the economy is necessary, how far society should intervene, and whether government, particularly existing government, is the correct vehicle for change.[11]
As a term,socialism represents a broad range of theoretical and historicalsocioeconomic systems and has also been used bymany political movements throughout history to describe themselves and their goals, generating a variety of socialism types.[8]Socialist economic systems can be further divided intomarket andnon-market forms.[14] The first type of socialism utilizes markets for allocating inputs and capital goods among economic units. In the second type of socialism,planning is utilized and include a system of accounting based oncalculation-in-kind tovalue resources and goods wherein production is carried outdirectly for use.[15][16]
There have been numerouspolitical movements such asanarchism,communism, thelabour movement,Marxism,social democracy andsyndicalism, whose members called themselvessocialists under some definition of the term—some of these interpretations are mutually exclusive and all of them have generated debates over the true meaning of socialism.[2][11] Different self-described socialists have usedsocialism to refer to different things such as aneconomic system,[17][5] a type ofsociety,[6] aphilosophical outlook,[1] anethical socialism in the form of a collection of moral values and ideals,[18][19][20][21] or a certain kind of human character.[22] Some of those definitions of socialism are very vague,[22] while others are so specific that they only include a small minority of the things that have been described as socialism in the past, such as amode of production,[23]state socialism,[24] or the abolition ofwage labour.[25]
The termsocialism was coined in the 1830s and it was first used to refer to philosophical or moral beliefs rather than any specific political views.Alexandre Vinet, who claimed to have been the first person to use the term, defined socialism simply as "the opposite ofindividualism".[26]Robert Owen also viewed socialism as a matter of ethics, although he used it with a slightly more specific meaning to refer to the view that human society can and should be improved for the benefit of all. In a similar vein,Pierre-Joseph Proudhon claimed that socialism is "every aspiration towards the amelioration of society".[27]
In the first half of the 19th century, many writers who described themselves as socialists—and who would be later calledutopian socialists—wrote down descriptions of what they believed to be the ideal human society. Some of them also created small communities that put their ideals into practice. A constant feature of these ideal societies was social and economicequality. Because the people who proposed the creation of such societies called themselves socialists, the term socialism came to refer not only to a certain moral doctrine, but also to a type of egalitarian society based on such a doctrine.
Other early advocates of socialism took a more scientific approach by favouring social leveling to create ameritocratic society based upon freedom for individual talent to prosper.[28] One of those was CountHenri de Saint-Simon, who was fascinated by the enormous potential of science and technology and believed a socialist society would eliminate the disorderly aspects of capitalism.[29] He advocated the creation of a society in which each person was ranked according to his or her capacities and rewarded according to his or her work.[28] The key focus of this early socialism was on administrative efficiency and industrialism and a belief that science was the key to progress.[30] Simon's ideas provided a foundation for scientific economic planning and technocratic administration of society.
Other early socialist thinkers such asCharles Hall andThomas Hodgskin based their ideas onDavid Ricardo's economic theories. They reasoned that the equilibrium value of commodities approximated to prices charged by the producer when those commodities were in elastic supply and that these producer prices corresponded to the embodied labor, i.e. the cost of the labor (essentially the wages paid) that was required to produce the commodities. The Ricardian socialists viewed profit, interest and rent as deductions from this exchange-value.[31] These ideas embodied early conceptions ofmarket socialism.
After the advent ofKarl Marx'stheory of capitalism andscientific socialism,socialism came to refer to ownership and administration of themeans of production by the working class, either through the state apparatus or through independent cooperatives. InMarxist theory, socialism refers to a specific stage of social and economic development that will displace capitalism, characterized by coordinated production, public or cooperative ownership of capital, diminishing class conflict and inequalities that spawn from such and the end of wage-labor with a method of compensation based on the principle of "From each according to his ability, to each according to his contribution".[32]
Although they share a common root (as elaborated upon in the above sections), schools of socialism are divided on many issues and sometimes there is a split within a school. The following is a brief overview of the major issues which have generated or are generating significant controversy amongst socialists in general.
Some branches of socialism arose largely as a philosophical construct (e.g.utopian socialism)—others in the heat of a revolution (e.g.early Marxism orLeninism). A few arose merely as the product of a ruling party (e.g.Stalinism), other as a product of various worker movements (e.g.anarcho-syndicalism), or a party or other group contending for political power in a democratic society (e.g.social democracy).
Some are in favour of a socialist revolution (e.g.Maoism,Marxism–Leninism,revolutionary socialism,social anarchism andTrotskyism) whilst others tend to supportreform instead (e.g.Fabianism andindividualist anarchism). Others believe both are possible (e.g.syndicalism or various forms ofMarxism). The first utopian socialists did not address the question of how a socialist society would be achieved.[citation needed]
All socialists criticize the current system in some way. Some criticisms center on the ownership of the means of production (e.g. Marxism) whereas others tend to focus on the nature of mass and equitable distribution (e.g. most forms of utopian socialism). Most are opposed to unchecked industrialism as well as capitalism (e.g.green left) and believe that under socialism the environment must be protected. Utopian socialists likeRobert Owen andHenri de Saint-Simon argued, although not from exactly the same perspective, that the injustice and widespread poverty of the societies they lived in were a problem of distribution of the goods created. On the other hand, Marxian socialists determined that the root of the injustice is based not in the function of distribution of goods already created, but rather in the fact that the ownership of the means of production is in the hands of the upper class. Marxian socialists also maintain in contrast to the utopian socialists that the root of injustice is not in how goods (commodities) are distributed, but for whose economic benefit are they produced and sold.[citation needed]
Most forms and derivatives of Marxism and anarchism advocated total or near-total socialization of the economy. Less radical schools (e.g.Reformism andreformist Marxism) proposed a mixed market economy instead.Mixed economies can in turn range anywhere from those developed by the social democratic governments that have periodically governed Northern and Western European countries, to the inclusion of smallcooperatives in the planned economy ofYugoslavia underJosip Broz Tito. A related issue is whether it is better to reform capitalism to create a fairer society (e.g. most social democrats) or to totally overthrow the capitalist system (all Marxists).
Some schools advocate centralized state control of the socialized sectors of the economy (e.g. Leninism), whilst others argue for control of those sectors byworkers' councils (e.g.anarchist communism,council communism, left communism, Marxism orsyndicalism). This question is usually referred to by socialists in terms of "ownership of themeans of production". None of the social democratic parties of Europe advocate total state ownership of the means of production in their contemporary demands and popular press.
Another issue socialists are divided on is what legal and political apparatus the workers would maintain and further develop the socialization of the means of production. Some advocate that the power of the workers' councils should itself constitute the basis of a socialist state (coupled withdirect democracy and the widespread use ofreferendums), but others hold that socialism entails the existence of a legislative body administered by people who would be elected in arepresentative democracy.
Different ideologies support different governments. During the era of the Soviet Union, Western socialists were bitterly divided as to whether the Soviet Union was actually socialist, moving toward socialism, or inherently unsocialist and in fact inimical to true socialism. Similarly, today the government of thePeople's Republic of China claims to be socialist and refers to its own approach associalism with Chinese characteristics, but many other socialists consider modern China to be essentially capitalist. The Chinese leadership concurs with most of the usual critiques against acommand economy and many of their actions to manage what they call a socialist economy have been determined by this opinion.
This form of socialism combines public ownership and management of the means of production withcentralized state planning and can refer to a broad range of economic systems from the centralizedSoviet-style command economy to participatory planning via workplace democracy. In a centrally-planned economy decisions regarding the quantity of goods and services to be produced as well as the allocation of output (distribution of goods and services) are planned in advance by a planning agency. This type of economic system was often combined with a one-party political system and is associated with theCommunist states of the 20th century.
A state-directed economy is a system where either the state orworker cooperatives own the means of production, but economic activity is directed to some degree by a government agency or planning ministry through mechanisms such asindicative planning or dirigisme. This differs from a centralized planned economy, or a command economy, in that micro-economic decision making, such as quantity to be produced and output requirements, is left to managers and workers in state enterprises or cooperative enterprises rather than being mandated by a comprehensive economic plan from a centralized planning board. However, the state will plan long-term strategic investment and some aspect of production. It is possible for a state-directed economy to have elements of both a market and planned economy. For example, production and investment decisions may be semi-planned by the state, but distribution of output may be determined by the market mechanism.
State-directed socialism can also refer to technocratic socialism—economic systems that rely on technocratic management and technocratic planning mechanisms, along with public ownership of the means of production. A forerunner of this concept wasHenri de Saint-Simon, who understood the state would undergo a transformation in a socialist system and change its role from one of "political administration of men, to the administration of things".
Elements of state-directed socialist economies includedirigisme,economic planning,state socialism andtechnocracy.
A decentralized planned economy is one where ownership of enterprises is accomplished through various forms ofself-management and worker cooperatives in which planning of production and distribution is done from the bottom-up by local worker councils in a democratic manner. This form of socialist economy is related to the political philosophies oflibertarian socialism,syndicalism and various forms of communal utopian socialism.
Examples of decentralized democratic planning includecouncil communism,individualist anarchism,industrial democracy,participatory economics,Soviet democracy andsyndicalism.[33]
Market socialism refers to various economic systems that involve either public ownership and management or worker cooperative ownership over the means of production, or a combination of both, and the market mechanism for allocating economic output, deciding what to produce and in what quantity. In state-oriented forms of market socialism where state enterprises attempt to maximize profit, the profits can fund government programs and services eliminating or greatly diminishing the need for various forms of taxation that exist in capitalist systems.
Some forms of market socialism are based onneoclassical economic theory, with the aim of attainingpareto efficiency by setting price to equal marginal cost in public enterprises. This form of socialism was promoted byOskar Lange,Abba Lerner andFrederick Taylor. Other forms of market socialism are based onclassical economics, such as those advocated byThomas Hodgskin, who viewed interest accumulation, rent and profit as deductions from exchange-value, so that eliminating the capitalist element from the economy would lead to a free market and socialism. The term market socialism has also been applied to planned economic systems that try to organize themselves partially along market-lines while retaining centralized state ownership of capital.
Examples of market socialism includeeconomic democracy, theLange model,liberal socialism,market-oriented left-libertarianism,mutualism theNew Economic Mechanism andRicardian socialism. Other types of market socialist systems such as mutualism are related to the political philosophy oflibertarian socialism.
A socialist market economy refers to the economic systems adopted by thePeople's Republic of China and theSocialist Republic of Vietnam, and previously alsoYugoslavia. Although there is dispute as to whether or not these models actually constitutestate capitalism, the decisive means of production remain under state-ownership. State enterprises are organized into corporations (corporatization) and operate like private capitalist enterprises. A substantial private sector exists alongside the state sector of the economy, but it plays a secondary role usually relegated to the service sector and production of consumer goods.
Examples of socialist market economies include thesocialist market economy with Chinese characteristics and thesocialist-oriented market economy.
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Utopian socialism is a term used to define the first currents of modernsocialist thought as exemplified by the work ofHenri de Saint-Simon,Charles Fourier andRobert Owen, which inspiredKarl Marx and other early socialists.[34] Although it is technically possible for any set of ideas or any person living at any time in history to be a utopian socialist, the term is most often applied to those socialists who lived in the first quarter of the 19th century who were ascribed the label "utopian" by later socialists as a negative term, in order to imply naivete and dismiss their ideas as fanciful or unrealistic.[30] Later socialists argued that visions of imaginary ideal societies, which competed with revolutionary social democratic movements, were not grounded in the material conditions of society and were therefore "reactionary".[35] Forms of socialism which existed in traditional societies, includingpre-Marxist communism are referred to asprimitive communism by Marxists.
Sociocracy is a socialist-positivist political view created byAuguste Comte, based on Saint-Simon's aristocratic, utopian socialist heritage, prioritizing social justice and a central government with direct democracy without parliament. Religious sects whose members live communally, such as theHutterites, for example, are not usually called "utopian socialists", although their way of living is a prime example. They have been categorized asreligious socialists by some. Similarly, modernintentional communities based on socialist ideas could also be categorized as "utopian socialist".
WhileMarxism had a significant impact on socialist thought, pre-Marxist thinkers (before Marx wrote on the subject) have advocated socialism in forms both similar and in stark contrast to Marx andFriedrich Engels' conception of socialism, advocating some form ofcollective ownership over large-scale production, worker-management within the workplace, or in some cases a form ofplanned economy. Early socialist philosophers and political theorists includedGerrard Winstanley, who founded theDiggers movement in the United Kingdom; Charles Fourier, French philosopher who propounded principles very similar to that of Marx;Louis Blanqui, French socialist and writer;Marcus Thrane, Norwegian socialist;Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Genevan philosopher, writer and composer whose works influenced theFrench Revolution; andPierre-Joseph Proudhon, French politician writer.
Pre-Marx socialists also includedRicardian socialist economists such asThomas Hodgskin, EnglishRicardian socialist andfree-market anarchist;Charles Hall;John Francis Bray;John Gray;William Thompson;Percy Ravenstone;James Mill; andJohn Stuart Mill,classical political economist who came to advocate worker-cooperative socialism.Utopian socialist thinkers included Henri de Saint-Simon,Wilhelm Weitling, Robert Owen, Charles Fourier andÉtienne Cabet.
The term scientific socialism is used byFriedrich Engels to describe the social-political-economic theory pioneered byKarl Marx. The term was coined in 1840 byPierre-Joseph Proudhon in his bookWhat is Property?[36] to mean asociety ruled by ascientific government, i.e., one whose sovereignty rests upon reason, rather than sheer will.[37]
Although the termsocialism has come to mean specifically a combination ofpolitical andeconomic science, it is also applicable to abroader area of science encompassing what is now consideredsociology and thehumanities. The distinction between Utopian and scientific socialism originated with Marx, who criticized the Utopian characteristics ofFrench socialism andEnglish and Scottish political economy. Engels later argued that Utopian socialists failed to recognize why it was that socialism arose in the historical context that it did, that it arose as a response to new social contradictions of a new mode of production, i.e.capitalism. In recognizing the nature of socialism as the resolution of this contradiction and applying a thorough scientific understanding of capitalism, Engels asserted that socialism had broken free from a primitive state and become a science.[38]
Communism (fromLatincommunis, "common, universal")[39][40] is aphilosophical,social,political,economic ideology andmovement whose ultimate goal is the establishment of acommunist society, namely asocioeconomic order structured upon the ideas ofcommon ownership of themeans of production and the absence ofsocial classes,money[41][42] and thestate.[43][44] Along withsocial democracy, communism became the dominant political tendency within the internationalsocialist movement by the 1920s.[45] While the emergence of the Soviet Union as the world's first nominallycommunist state led to communism's widespread association with theSoviet economic model andMarxism–Leninism,[46][47][48] some economists and intellectuals argued that in practice the model functioned as a form ofstate capitalism,[49][50][51] or a non-plannedadministrative or command economy.[52][53]
Communism has usually been distinguished fromsocialism since the 1840s. The modern definition and usage ofsocialism settled by the 1860s, becoming the predominant term among the group of words associationist, co-operative and mutualist which had previously been used as synonyms. Instead,communism fell out of use during this period.[54] An early distinction betweencommunism andsocialism was that the latter aimed to only socialise production while the former aimed to socialise both production and consumption (in the form of free access to final goods).[55] However, Marxists employedsocialism in place ofcommunism by 1888 which had come to be considered an old-fashion synonym forsocialism. It was not until 1917 after theBolshevik Revolution thatsocialism came to refer to a distinct stage betweencapitalism andcommunism, introduced byVladimir Lenin as a means to defend the Bolshevik seizure of power against traditional Marxist criticism that Russia'sproductive forces were not sufficiently developed for socialist revolution.[56] A distinction betweencommunist andsocialist as descriptors of political ideologies arose in 1918 after theRussian Social-Democratic Labour Party renamed itself to theAll-Russian Communist Party, wherecommunist came to specifically mean socialists who supported the politics and theories ofBolshevism,Leninism and laterMarxism–Leninism,[57] although communist parties continued to describe themselves as socialists dedicated to socialism.[54]
Bothcommunism andsocialism eventually accorded with the adherents' and opponents' cultural attitude towards religion.[58] In Christian Europe,communism was believed to be theatheist way of life. In Protestant England,communism was too culturally and aurally close to the Roman Catholiccommunion rite, hence English atheists denoted themselves socialists.[59]Friedrich Engels argued that in 1848, at the time whenThe Communist Manifesto was first published, "socialism was respectable on the continent, while communism was not". TheOwenites in England and theFourierists in France were considered respectable socialists while working-class movements that "proclaimed the necessity of total social change" denoted themselves communists. This latter branch of socialism produced the communist work ofÉtienne Cabet in France andWilhelm Weitling in Germany.[60]
The dominant forms of communism are based on Marxism, but non-Marxist versions of communism such asanarchist communism andChristian communism also exist. According toThe Oxford Handbook of Karl Marx, "Marx used many terms to refer to a post-capitalist society—positive humanism, socialism, Communism, realm of free individuality, free association of producers, etc. He used these terms completely interchangeably. The notion that "socialism" and "Communism" are distinct historical stages is alien to his work and only entered the lexicon of Marxism after his death".[61]
Marxism, or Marxist communism, refers toclassless,stateless social organization based uponcommon ownership of themeans of production and to a variety of movements acting in the name of this goal which are influenced by the thought of Karl Marx. In general, the classless forms of social organisation are not capitalised while movements associated with officialcommunist parties andcommunist states usually are. In the classic Marxist definition (pure communism), a communist economy refers to a system that has achieved a superabundance of goods and services due to an increase in technological capability and advances in the productive forces and therefore has transcended socialism such as apost-scarcity economy. This is a hypothetical stage of social and economic development with few speculative details known about it.
The actual goal of communism has never been attained in practice from a Marxist position, though anarchist societies have provided a glimpse of what a communist world would look like. The real idea behind it is to abolish all leadership, and govern with acommune. That is, the people themselves make all decisions, and everyone contributing to the wellbeing of thecommune.Communist state is used by Western historians, political scientists and media to refer to these countries and distinguish them fromother socialist states. In practice, most governments that have claimed to be communists have not described themselves as a communist state nor they claimed to have achievedcommunism orcommunist society. Those states have referred to themselves associalist states (i.e. states that are constitutionally socialist) that are in the process of constructing socialism.[62][63][64][65]
The modern political Marxist communist movement was created when the social democratic parties of Europe split between their rightist and leftist tendencies during World War I. The leftists, led internationally byVladimir Lenin,Rosa Luxemburg andKarl Liebknecht, to distinguish their brand of socialism from the "reformist" social democrats, were called "communists". However, after Luxemburg's and Liebknecht's murders the term communist became generally associated solely with the parties and organisations following Lenin, along with their various derivations, such asStalinism orMaoism.
There is a considerable variety of views among self-identified communists. However,Marxism andLeninism,schools of communism associated with Karl Marx and of Vladimir Lenin respectively, have the distinction of having been a major force in world politics since the early 20th century.Class struggle plays a central role in Marxism. This theory views the formation of communism as the culmination of the class struggle between the capitalist class, the owners of most of the capital and the working class. Marx held that society could not be transformed from thecapitalist mode of production to the communist mode of production all at once, but required a transitional state which Marx described as the revolutionarydictatorship of the proletariat.
Some forms of the communist society that Marx envisioned, as emerging from capitalism, have been claimed to be achieved for limited periods during certain historical moments and under certain circumstances. For example, theParis Commune in fact let Marx reinforce and implement his theories by adapting them to a real experience he could draw from. Another similar case, though disputed byanarcho-syndicalism or evenanarchism, was theSpanish Revolution of 1936 (often missed or unmentioned by officialhistoriography), during which much of Spain's economy in most ofRepublican areas, some of which enjoyed a practical absence ofstate, was put under workers' direct collective control.
In addition to this, the term communism (as well as socialism) is often used to refer to those political and economic systems and states dominated by a political, bureaucratic class, typically attached to onesingleCommunist party that follow Marxist–Leninist doctrines and often claim to represent thedictatorship of the proletariat in a non-democratic fashion, described by critics as in atotalitarian andbureaucratic. These systems are also often called Stalinism,state capitalism,state communism orstate socialism.
With the Soviet Union's creation after the end ofRussian Civil War that followed to initial success of RedOctober Revolution in Russia, other socialist parties in other countries and theBolshevik party itself became Communist parties, owing allegiance of varying degrees to theCommunist Party of the Soviet Union (seeCommunist International). After World War II, regimes calling themselves Communist took power in Eastern Europe. In 1949, the Communists in China, supported by Soviet Union and led byMao Zedong, came to power and established thePeople's Republic of China. Among the other countries in theThird World that adopted a bureaucraticCommunist state as form of government at some point were Cuba, North Korea, Vietnam, Laos, Angola and Mozambique. By the early 1980s, almost one third of the world's population lived under Communist states.
Communism carries a strongsocial stigma in the United States due to a history ofanti-communism in the United States. Since the early 1970s, the termEurocommunism was used to refer to the policies of Communist parties inwestern Europe, which sought to break with the tradition of uncritical and unconditional support of the Soviet Union. Such parties were politically active and electorally significant in France and Italy. With the collapse of the statalizedone-party systems andMarxist–Leninist governments, inEastern Europe from the late 1980s and thebreakup of the Soviet Union on December 8, 1991, Marxist–Leninist state communism's influence has decreased dramatically in Europe, but around a quarter of the world's population still lives under such a kind of Communist states.
Vladimir Lenin never used the term Leninism, nor did he refer to his views as Marxism–Leninism. However, his ideas diverged from classical Marxist theory on several important points (see the articles on Marxism and Leninism for more information).Bolshevik communists saw these differences as advancements of Marxism made by Lenin. After Lenin's death, his ideology and contributions to Marxist theory were termed "Marxism–Leninism", or sometimes only "Leninism". Marxism–Leninism soon became the official name for the ideology of theComintern and ofCommunist parties around the world.
Trotskyism is the theory of Marxism as advocated by Russian revolutionary andintellectual[66][67]Leon Trotsky. Trotsky had been the leader of theRed Army,[68] honorary president of theThird International[69] and Lenin had proposed he serve asVice-chairman to preside overeconomic management.[70][71] Trotsky considered himself aBolshevik–Leninist, arguing for the establishment of avanguard party. He considered himself an advocate of orthodox Marxism. His politics differed greatly from those ofStalin orMao, most importantly in declaring the need for an international "permanent revolution" and arguing that democracy is essential to both socialism and communism. Numerous groups around the world continue to describe themselves as Trotskyist and see themselves as standing in this tradition, although they have diverse interpretations of the conclusions to be drawn from this.
Trotsky advocated for adecentralized form ofeconomic planning,[72] elected representation of Sovietsocialist parties,[73][74]worker's control of production,[75] masssovietdemocratization,[76][77][78] the tactic of aunited front against far-right parties,[79]cultural autonomy for artistic movements,[80] voluntarycollectivisation[81][82] atransitional program,[83] and socialistinternationalism.[84]
The economic platform of aplanned economy combined with an authenticworker's democracy as originally advocated by Trotsky has constituted the programme of theFourth International and the modern Trotskyist movement.[85]
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Stalinism was thetotalitarian[86][87][88] theory and practice ofcommunism practiced byJoseph Stalin, leader of the Soviet Union from 1928 to 1953. Officially it adhered toMarxism–Leninism, but whether Stalin's practices actually followed the principles of Marx and Lenin is a subject of debate andcriticism. In contrast to Marx and Lenin, Stalin made few new theoretical contributions. Stalin's main contributions to communist theory wereSocialism in One Country and the theory ofaggravation of class struggle under socialism, a theoretical base supporting the repression of political opponents as necessary. Stalinism took an aggressive stance onclass conflict, utilizingstate violence in an attempt to forcibly purge society of thebourgeoisie.[89] The groundwork for the Soviet policy concerning nationalities was laid out in Stalin's 1913 workMarxism and the National Question.[90]
Stalinist policies in the Soviet Union featured de factoone man rule,[91][92] rapidindustrialization,cult of personality, masscensorship,Five-Year Plans,socialism in one country, a centralized state,collectivization of agriculture and subordination of interests of other communist parties to those of theCommunist Party of the Soviet Union.[93] Rapid industrialization was designed to accelerate the development towards communism, stressing that industrialization was needed because the country was economically backward in comparison with other countries, and was needed in order to face the challenges posed by internal and external enemies.[94] Rapid industrialization was accompanied with masscollective farming and rapidurbanization.[95] Rapid urbanization converted many small villages into industrial cities.[95]
A key concept that distinguishes Maoism from other left-wing ideologies is the belief that theclass struggle continues throughout the entire socialist period, as a result of the fundamentalantagonistic contradiction betweencapitalism andcommunism. Even when theproletariat has seized state power through a socialistrevolution, the potential remains for abourgeoisie to restore capitalism. Indeed, Mao famously stated that "the bourgeoisie [in a socialist country] is right inside the Communist Party itself", implying that corrupt Party officials would subvert socialism if not prevented.
Unlike the earlier forms of Marxism–Leninism in which the urbanproletariat was seen as the main source of revolution, and the countryside was largely ignored, Mao focused on the peasantry as a revolutionary force which, he said, could be mobilized by a Communist Party with their knowledge and leadership.
Unlike most other political ideologies, including othersocialist and Marxist ones, Maoism contains an integralmilitary doctrine and explicitly connects its political ideology withmilitary strategy. In Maoist thought, "political power comes from the barrel of the gun" (one of Mao's quotes), and thepeasantry can be mobilized to undertake a "people's war" of armed struggle involvingguerrilla warfare.
Since the death of Mao and the reforms of Deng, most of the parties explicitly defining themselves as "Maoist" have disappeared, but various communist groups around the world, particularly armed ones like theUnified Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist), theCPI (Maoist) andCPI (ML) of India and theNew People's Army of thePhilippines, continue to advance Maoist ideas and get press attention for them. These groups generally have the idea that Mao's ideas were betrayed before they could be fully or properly implemented.
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Dengism is a political and economic ideology that originated with Chinese leaderDeng Xiaoping. Dengism aims to adapt Marxism–Leninism and Mao Zedong Thought to China's specific socio-economic context. Deng emphasized several key principles, includingopening China to the global community, implementing the "one country, two systems" policy, and promoting political and economicpragmatism through the maxim "seek truth from facts".
As a reformist branch of communism and a variant of Maoism, Dengism is often criticized by traditional Maoists. Dengists believe that given China's isolation in the current international order and its extremely underdeveloped economy, it is crucial to swiftly bridge the gap between China and the West for socialism to succeed (as outlined in the theory of theprimary stage of socialism). To encourage productivity and foster innovation, Dengist thought advocates for the introduction of market elements into the socialist system. Dengists maintain that China should retain public ownership of land, banks, raw materials, and strategic industries, but they also endorse private ownership in industries related to finished goods and services.[96][97][98] According to Dengist theory, private owners in these industries do not constitute a bourgeoisie, as the term “bourgeois” traditionally refers to those who own land and raw materials. Instead, private company owners are referred to as civil-run enterprises.[99] An important note is that Dengists take a firm stance against any form of personality cult, such as those in China under Mao's rule, the Soviet Union during Stalin's era, and North Korea under theKim family.[100][101]
China was the first country to adopt this model, although it is vaguely similar to Russia under Lenin'sNew Economic Policy. The adoption of this model significantly boosted China's economy, leading to what is often referred to as theChinese economic miracle. Over a period of thirty years, China achieved an annual GDP growth rate of over 8%, securing its position as the world's second-largest economy. Dengism, with its influence, has found adoption in other countries as well. Notably, both Vietnam and Laos have embraced this ideology, resulting in substantial economic growth. In the case of Laos, the real GDP growth rate reached 8.3%.[102] Additionally, Cuba began exploring this model, allowing small and medium-sized private businesses in 2021.[103][104]
Council communism, or councilism, is a current oflibertarian Marxism that emerged from theNovember Revolution in the 1920s, characterized by its opposition tostate capitalism/state socialism as well as its advocacy ofworkers' councils as the basis forworkers' democracy. Originally affiliated with theCommunist Workers' Party of Germany (KAPD), council communism continues today as a theoretical and activist position within the greaterlibertarian socialism movement.
Chief among the tenets of council communism is its opposition to theparty vanguardism[105][106] anddemocratic centralism[107] ofLeninist ideologies and its contention that democratic workers' councils arising in the factories and municipalities are the natural form of working class organization and authority. Council communism also stands in contrast tosocial democracy through its formal rejection of both thereformism andparliamentarism.[108]
The historical origins of left communism can be traced to the period beforeWorld War I, but it only came into focus after 1918. All left communists were supportive of theOctober Revolution in Russia, but retained a critical view of its development. However, some would in later years come to reject the idea that the revolution had aproletarian orsocialist nature, asserting that it had simply carried out the tasks of thebourgeois revolution by creating a state capitalist system.
Autonomism refers to a set ofleft-wing political and social movements and theories close to thesocialist movement. As an identifiable theoretical system it first emerged inItaly in the 1960s fromworkerist (operaismo)communism. Later, post-Marxist andanarchist tendencies became significant after influence from theSituationists, the failure of Italianfar-left movements in the 1970s, and the emergence of a number of important theorists includingAntonio Negri, who had contributed to the 1969 founding ofPotere Operaio,Mario Tronti,Paolo Virno, etc.
Unlike other forms of Marxism, autonomist Marxism emphasises the ability of the working class to force changes to the organization of the capitalist system independent of the state, trade unions or political parties. Autonomists are less concerned with party political organization than other Marxists, focusing instead on self-organized action outside of traditional organizational structures. Autonomist Marxism is thus a "bottom up" theory: it draws attention to activities that autonomists see as everyday working class resistance to capitalism, for example absenteeism, slow working, and socialization in the workplace.
Through translations made available by Danilo Montaldi and others, the Italian autonomists drew upon previous activist research in the United States by theJohnson-Forest Tendency and in France by the groupSocialisme ou Barbarie.
It influenced the German and Dutch Autonomen, the worldwideSocial Centre movement, and today is influential in Italy, France, and to a lesser extent the English-speaking countries. Those who describe themselves as autonomists now vary from Marxists topost-structuralists and anarchists. The Autonomist Marxist andAutonomen movements provided inspiration to some on the revolutionary left in English speaking countries, particularly among anarchists, many of whom have adopted autonomist tactics. Some English-speaking anarchists even describe themselves asAutonomists.
The Italianoperaismo movement also influenced Marxist academics such asHarry Cleaver,John Holloway, Steve Wright, andNick Dyer-Witheford.
Anarchism (fromGreek: αναρχία,anarkhia; "without a ruler") is apolitical philosophy that advocatesstateless societies based on non-hierarchicalfree associations.[109][110][111][112][113] Anarchism holds thestate to be undesirable, unnecessary, or harmful.[114][115] While anti-statism is central, some argue[116] that anarchism entails opposingauthority orhierarchical organization in the conduct of human relations, including, but not limited to, the state system.[109][117][118][119][120][121][122]Anarchism as asocial movement has regularly endured fluctuations in popularity. Its classical period, which scholars demarcate as from 1860 to 1939, is associated with the working-class movements of the 19th century and theSpanish Civil War-era struggles againstfascism.[123]
In 1864 theInternational Workingmen's Association (sometimes called the First International) united diverse revolutionary currents including French followers ofProudhon,[125] The anti-authoritarian sections of the First International were the precursors of the anarcho-syndicalists, seeking to "replace the privilege and authority of the State" with the "free and spontaneous organization of labor."[126]
In 1907, theInternational Anarchist Congress of Amsterdam gathered delegates from 14 countries, among which important figures of the anarchist movement, includingErrico Malatesta,Pierre Monatte,Luigi Fabbri,Benoît Broutchoux,Emma Goldman,Rudolf Rocker, andChristiaan Cornelissen. Various themes were treated during the Congress, in particular concerning the organisation of the anarchist movement,popular education issues, thegeneral strike orantimilitarism. A central debate concerned the relation between anarchism andsyndicalism (ortrade unionism). TheSpanish Workers Federation in 1881 was the first major anarcho-syndicalist movement; anarchist trade union federations were of special importance in Spain. The most successful was theConfederación Nacional del Trabajo (National Confederation of Labour: CNT), founded in 1910. Before the 1940s, the CNT was the major force in Spanish working class politics, attracting 1.58 million members at one point and playing a major role in theSpanish Civil War.[127] The CNT was affiliated with the International Workers Association, a federation of anarcho-syndicalist trade unions founded in 1922, with delegates representing two million workers from 15 countries in Europe and Latin America.
Some anarchists, such asJohann Most, advocated publicizing violent acts of retaliation against counter-revolutionaries because "we preach not only action in and for itself, but also action as propaganda."[128] Numerous heads of state were assassinated between 1881 and 1914 by members of the anarchist movement. For example, U.S.President McKinley's assassinLeon Czolgosz claimed to have been influenced by anarchist andfeministEmma Goldman. Anarchists participated alongside theBolsheviks in bothFebruary andOctober revolutions, and were initially enthusiastic about the Bolshevik coup.[129] However, the Bolsheviks soon turned against the anarchists and other left-wing opposition, a conflict that culminated in the 1921Kronstadt rebellion which the new government repressed. Anarchists in central Russia were either imprisoned, driven underground or joined the victorious Bolsheviks; the anarchists from Petrograd and Moscow fled toUkraine.[130] There, in theMakhnovshchina, they fought in thecivil war against theWhites (a Western-backed grouping of monarchists and other opponents of the October Revolution) and then the Bolsheviks as part of theRevolutionary Insurgent Army of Ukraine led byNestor Makhno, who established an anarchist society in the region for a number of months.
In the 1920s and 1930s, the rise offascism in Europe transformed anarchism's conflict with the state. In Spain, theCNT initially refused to join a popular front electoral alliance, and abstention by CNT supporters led to a right-wing election victory. In 1936, the CNT changed its policy and anarchist votes helped bring the popular front back to power. Months later, the former ruling class responded with an attempted coup causing theSpanish Civil War (1936–1939).[131] In response to the army rebellion, ananarchist-inspired movement of peasants and workers, supported by armed militias, took control ofBarcelona and of large areas of rural Spain where theycollectivised the land.[132] But even before the fascist victory in 1939, the anarchists were losing ground in a bitter struggle with theStalinists, who controlled the distribution of military aid to the Republican cause from the Soviet Union. Stalinist-led troops suppressed the collectives and persecuted bothdissident Marxists and anarchists.[133]
A surge of popular interest in anarchism occurred during the 1960s and 1970s.[134] In 1968 inCarrara, Italy theInternational of Anarchist Federations was founded during an internationalAnarchist conference inCarrara in 1968 by the three existing European federations ofFrance, theItalian and theIberian Anarchist Federation as well as theBulgarian federation in French exile.[135][136] In the United Kingdom this was associated with thepunk rock movement, as exemplified by bands such asCrass and theSex Pistols.[137] The housing and employment crisis in most of Western Europe led to the formation ofcommunes andsquatter movements like that ofBarcelona, Spain. In Denmark,squatters occupied a disused military base and declared theFreetown Christiania, an autonomous haven in central Copenhagen.
Since the revival of anarchism in the mid 20th century,[138] a number of new movements and schools of thought emerged. Around the turn of the 21st century, anarchism grew in popularity and influence as part of the anti-war, anti-capitalist, andanti-globalisation movements.[139] Anarchists became known for their involvement in protests against the meetings of theWorld Trade Organization (WTO),Group of Eight, and theWorld Economic Forum. International anarchist federations in existence include theInternational of Anarchist Federations, theInternational Workers' Association, and International Libertarian Solidarity.
Mutualism began in 18th-century English and French labor movements, then took an anarchist form associated withPierre-Joseph Proudhon in France and others in the US.[140] This influenced individualist anarchists in the United States such asBenjamin Tucker andWilliam B. Greene.Josiah Warren proposed similar ideas in 1833[141] after participating in a failedOwenite experiment.[142] In the 1840s and 1850s,Charles A. Dana,[143] andWilliam B. Greene introduced Proudhon's works to the US. Greene adapted Proudhon's mutualism to American conditions and introduced it toBenjamin R. Tucker.[144]
Mutualist anarchism is concerned withreciprocity,free association, voluntary contract, federation, and credit and currency reform. Many mutualists believe a market withoutgovernment intervention drives prices down to labor-costs, eliminating profit, rent, and interest according to thelabor theory of value. Firms would be forced to compete over workers just as workers compete over firms, raising wages.[145][146] Some see mutualism as between individualist and collectivist anarchism;[147] inWhat Is Property?, Proudhon develops a concept of "liberty", equivalent to "anarchy", which is the dialectical "synthesis of communism and property."[148] Greene, influenced byPierre Leroux, sought mutualism in the synthesis of three philosophies – communism, capitalism and socialism.[149] Later individualist anarchists used the term mutualism but retained little emphasis on synthesis, whilesocial anarchists such as the authors of An Anarchist FAQ claim mutualism as a subset of their philosophical tradition.[150]
Collectivist anarchism is a revolutionary[151] form of anarchism most commonly associated withMikhail Bakunin,Johann Most and the anti-authoritarian section of theFirst International (1864–1876).[152] Unlike mutualists, collectivist anarchists oppose all private ownership of the means of production, instead advocating that ownership be collectivized. This was to be initiated by small cohesive elite group through acts of violence, or "propaganda by the deed", which would inspire the workers to revolt and forcibly collectivize the means of production.[151] Workers would be compensated for their work on the basis of the amount of time they contributed to production, rather than goods being distributed "according to need" as in anarchist communism.
Althoughcollectivist anarchism shares many similarities withanarchist communism there are also many key differences between them. For example, collectivist anarchists believe that the economy and most or all property should be collectively owned by society while anarchist communists by contrast believe that the concept of ownership should be rejected by society and replaced with the concept of usage.[153] Also Collectivist anarchists often favor using a form of currency to compensate workers according to the amount of time spent contributing to society and production while anarchist communists believe that currency and wages should be abolished all together and goods should be distributed "to each according to his or her need".
Anarchist communists propose that a society composed of a number ofself-governingcommunes withcollective use of themeans of production, withdirect democracy as the political organizational form, and related to other communes throughfederation would be the freest form of social organisation.[154] However, some anarchist communists oppose the majoritarian nature of direct democracy, feeling that it can impede individual liberty and favorconsensus democracy.[155]Joseph Déjacque was an early anarchist communist and the first person to describe himself as "libertarian".[156] Other important anarchist communists includePeter Kropotkin,Emma Goldman,Alexander Berkman andErrico Malatesta.
In anarchist communism, individuals would not receive directcompensation for labour (through sharing ofprofits or payment), but would instead have free access to the resources and surplus of thecommune.[157] On the basis of hisbiological research and experimentation, Kropotkin believed that humans and human society are more inclined towards efforts for mutual benefit than toward competition and strife.[158][159][160][161] Kropotkin believed thatprivate property was one of the causes of oppression and exploitation and called for its abolition,[162][163] but he only opposedownership, notpossession.[164]
Someanarcho-syndicalists saw anarchist communism as their objective. For example, the Spanish CNT adoptedIsaac Puente's 1932 "Libertarian Communism" as its manifesto for a post-revolutionary society.[154]
Anarchist communism does not always have acommunitarian philosophy. Some forms of anarchist communism areegoist and strongly influenced by radical individualism believing that anarchist communism does not require a communitarian nature at all. Forms oflibertarian communism such asSituationism are strongly egoist in nature.[165] Anarchist communistEmma Goldman was influenced by both Stirner and Kropotkin and blended their philosophies together in her own, as shown in books of hers such asAnarchism And Other Essays.[166]
Anarcho-syndicalism is a branch ofanarchism that focuses on thelabor movement.[167] Anarcho-syndicalists viewlabor unions as a potential force forrevolutionary social change, replacing capitalism and thestate with a new society democratically self-managed by workers.
The basic principles of anarcho-syndicalism are the following:
Workers' solidarity means that anarcho-syndicalists believe all workers—no matter theirrace,gender, orethnic group—are in a similar situation in regard to theirboss (class consciousness). Furthermore, it means that, within capitalism, any gains or losses made by some workers from or to bosses will eventually affect all workers. Therefore, all workers must support one another in theirclass conflict toliberate themselves.
Anarcho-syndicalists believe that onlydirect action—that is, action concentrated on directly attaining a goal, as opposed to indirect action, such as electing a representative to a government position—will allow workers to liberate themselves.[168] Moreover, anarcho-syndicalists believe that workers' organizations (the organizations that struggle against the wage system, which, in anarcho-syndicalist theory, will eventually form the basis of a new society) should be self-managing. They should not have bosses or "business agents"; rather, the workers should be able to make all the decisions that affect them themselves.
Rudolf Rocker was one of the most popular voices in the anarcho-syndicalist movement. He outlined a view of the origins of the movement, what it sought, and why it was important to the future of labor in his 1938 pamphletAnarcho-Syndicalism. TheInternational Workers Association is an international anarcho-syndicalist federation of various labor unions from different countries. The SpanishConfederación Nacional del Trabajo played and still plays a major role in the Spanishlabor movement. It was also an important force in theSpanish Civil War.
Individualist anarchism is a set of several traditions of thought within the anarchist movement that emphasize theindividual and theirwill over external determinants such as groups, society, traditions and ideological systems.[169][170] Although usually contrasted tosocial anarchism, both individualist and social anarchism have influenced each other.Mutualism, an economy theory particularly influential within individualist anarchism whose pursuedliberty has been called the synthesis ofcommunism andproperty,[171] has been considered sometimes part of individualist anarchism[172][173][174] and other times part of social anarchism.[175][176] Manyanarchist communists regard themselves as radical individualists,[177] seeing anarchist communism as the bestsocial system for the realization of individual freedom.[178] As a term, individualist anarchism is not a single philosophy, but it refers to a group ofindividualist philosophies that sometimes are in conflict. Among the early influences on individualist anarchism wereWilliam Godwin,[179]Josiah Warren (sovereignty of the individual),Max Stirner (egoism),[180]Lysander Spooner (natural law),Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (mutualism),Henry David Thoreau (transcendentalism),[181]Herbert Spencer (law of equal liberty)[182] andAnselme Bellegarrigue.[183] From there, it expanded throughEurope and theUnited States.Benjamin Tucker, a famous 19th-century individualist anarchist, held that "if the individual has the right to govern himself, all external government is tyranny".[184] Tucker also argued that it was "not Socialist Anarchism against Individualist Anarchism, but of Communist Socialism against Individualist Socialism".[185] The view of an individualist–socialist divide is contested as individualist anarchism is socialistic.[186]
Josiah Warren is widely regarded as the first American anarchist[187] and the four-page weekly paper he edited during 1833,The Peaceful Revolutionist, was the first anarchist periodical published.[188] For American anarchist historian Eunice Minette Schuster, "[i]t is apparent [...] thatProudhonian Anarchism was to be found in the United States at least as early as 1848 and that it was not conscious of its affinity to the Individualist Anarchism of Josiah Warren andStephen Pearl Andrews [...].William B. Greene presented this Proudhonian Mutualism in its purest and most systematic form".[189] Later, the American individualist anarchist Benjamin Tucker "was against both the state and capitalism, against both oppression and exploitation. While not against the market and property he was firmly against capitalism as it was, in his eyes, a state-supported monopoly of social capital (tools, machinery, etc.) which allows owners to exploit their employees, i.e., to avoid paying workers the full value of their labour. He thought that the "labouring classes are deprived of their earnings by usury in its three forms, interest, rent and profit", therefore "Liberty will abolish interest; it will abolish profit; it will abolish monopolistic rent; it will abolish taxation; it will abolish the exploitation of labour; it will abolish all means whereby any labourer can be deprived of any of his product". This stance puts him squarely in the libertarian socialist tradition and Tucker referred to himself many times as a socialist and considered his philosophy to be anarchistic socialism.[190][191]
French individualist anarchistÉmile Armand shows clearly opposition to capitalism and centralized economies when he said that the individualist anarchist "inwardly he remains refractory – fatally refractory – morally, intellectually, economically (The capitalist economy and the directed economy, the speculators and the fabricators of single are equally repugnant to him.)".[192] The Spanish individualist anarchistMiguel Giménez Igualada thought that "capitalism is an effect of government; the disappearance of government means capitalism falls from its pedestal vertiginously...That which we call capitalism is not something else but a product of the State, within which the only thing that is being pushed forward is profit, good or badly acquired. And so to fight against capitalism is a pointless task, since be itState capitalism or Enterprise capitalism, as long as Government exists, exploiting capital will exist. The fight, but of consciousness, is against the State".[193] His view onclass division andtechnocracy are as follows: "Since when no one works for another, the profiteer from wealth disappears, just as government will disappear when no one pays attention to those who learned four things at universities and from that fact they pretend to govern men. Big industrial enterprises will be transformed by men in big associations in which everyone will work and enjoy the product of their work. And from those easy as well as beautiful problems anarchism deals with and he who puts them in practice and lives them are anarchists. [...] The priority which without rest an anarchist must make is that in which no one has to exploit anyone, no man to no man, since that non-exploitation will lead to the limitation of property to individual needs".[194]
The anarchist[195] writer andBohemianOscar Wilde wrote in his famous essayThe Soul of Man under Socialism that "[a]rt is individualism, and individualism is a disturbing and disintegrating force. There lies its immense value. For what it seeks is to disturb monotony of type, slavery of custom, tyranny of habit, and the reduction of man to the level of a machine".[196] For anarchist historian George Woodcock, "Wilde's aim inThe Soul of Man under Socialism is to seek the society most favorable to the artist [...] for Wilde art is the supreme end, containing within itself enlightenment and regeneration, to which all else in society must be subordinated. [...] Wilde represents the anarchist asaesthete".[197] In a socialist society, people will have the possibility to realise their talents as "each member of the society will share in the general prosperity and happiness of the society". Wilde added that "upon the other hand, Socialism itself will be of value simply because it will lead to individualism" since individuals will no longer need to fear poverty or starvation. This individualism would, in turn, protect against governments "armed with economic power as they are now with political power" over their citizens. However, Wilde advocated non-capitalist individualism, saying that "of course, it might be said that the Individualism generated under conditions of private property is not always, or even as a rule, of a fine or wonderful type" a critique which is "quite true".[198] In Wilde's imagination, in this way socialism would free men from manual labour and allow them to devote their time to creative pursuits, thus developing their soul. He ended by declaring: "The new individualism is the new hellenism".[198]
Democratic socialism is a broad political movement that seeks to propagate the ideals of socialism within the context of a democratic system, as was done by Western social democrats, who popularizeddemocratic socialism as a label to criticize the perceived authoritarian or non-democratic socialist development in the East, during the 19th and 20th centuries. In this sense, democratic socialism is closely related to social democracy and in some accounts are identical; other accounts stress differences, while maintaining that they are not mutually exclusive and can be compatible. Many democratic socialists support the system of social democracy as a road to reform of the capitalist system, while others support more revolutionary change in society to establish socialist goals. In the former sense, social democracy is considered to be more centrist and is more concerned of gradual improvements of the capitalist system, themixed economy, and thewelfare state, while some more radical social democrats, who describe themselves as democratic socialists, support a moreanti-capitalist reformism, or through more radicalevolutionary means, includingrevolutionary means.
Modern democratic socialists and social democrats both advocate the concept of the welfare state, at least to the extent that it protects and promotes the economic and social well-being of its citizens, including those unable to minimally provide for a good life. Whereas some modern social democrats view are more concern to gradually improve the welfare state, irrespective of any hierarchies of power that may persist following welfare reforms, which can and have been reversed by capital after the breakdown of the post-war compromise with labor, many modern democratic socialists view it as a means to an egalitarian end. Democratic socialists are also committed to the ideas of theredistribution of wealth and power as well as social ownership of certain industries, concepts which are considered to be abandoned by Third Way social democrats. Highlighting this difference, contemporary advocates of the democratic socialist model have criticized the modern Third Way social democratic approach of a welfare state if it is not adequately providing socioeconomic welfare programs at the universal level.[199]
While there are no countries in the world that would qualify as a democratic socialist state, i.e. as a democratic state having achieved a post-capitalist, socialist economy, several academics, political commentators, and scholars have distinguished betweenauthoritarian socialist anddemocratic socialist states, with the first representing theSoviet Bloc, which is considered as being authoritarian or non-democratic enough and as being socialist only constitutionally, and the latter representingWestern Bloc countries which have been democratically governed by socialist parties such as Britain, France, Sweden, and Western social-democracies in general, among others, which have pushed the ideals and objectives of socialism within the context of a democratic political system and capitalist economic system. Some states have described as being democratic socialists. In other countries, democratic socialism is defined more generally, essentially equating economic rights with human rights. United States SenatorBernie Sanders, a proponent of democratic socialism, has defined the term as universally guaranteeing rights to quality health care, sufficient education, employment at a living wage, affordable housing, secure retirement, and a clean environment. Toward these ends, he has invoked the words ofMartin Luther King Jr., who also advocated democratic socialism, in calling for "a better distribution of wealth".[200]
Social democracy can be divided into classical and modern strands. Classical social democracy attempts to achieve socialism through gradual, parliamentary means and by introducing it from within democracy rather than through revolutionary means. The termsocial democracy can refer to the particular kind of society that social democrats advocate.
TheSocialist International (SI), the worldwide organization of social democratic and democratic socialist parties, defines social democracy as an ideal form ofrepresentative democracy that may solve the problems found in aliberal democracy. The SI emphasizes principles such as freedom—not only individual liberties, but also freedom from discrimination and freedom from dependence on either the owners of the means of production or the holders of abusive political power; equality and social justice—not only before the law, but also economic and socio-cultural equality as well equal opportunities for all, including those with physical, mental, or social disabilities; and solidarity—unity and a sense of compassion for the victims of injustice and inequality.[201]
Modern social democracy seeks to contain capitalism through transitioning unstable private sector enterprises into public ownership, correcting economic and social inequality through social safety nets and services, sometimes referred to aswelfare state policies, and more aggressive regulation of markets and private enterprise than other forms ofmixed economy. Over the past forty years, social democracy has increasingly been replaced with alternate economic systems such as thesocial market economy orThird Way mixed economies that are informed byKeynesian economics.
Merging aspects of Marxism,socialism,environmentalism, anarchism andecology, eco-socialists generally believe that the capitalist system is the cause ofsocial exclusion,inequality andenvironmental degradation. Eco-socialists criticise many within thegreen movement for not going far enough in their critique of the current world system and for not being overtlyanti-capitalist. At the same time, Eco-socialists would blame the traditional Left for overlooking or not properly addressing ecological problems.[202] Eco-socialists areanti-globalisation.Joel Kovel seesglobalisation as a force driven by capitalism; in turn, the rapideconomic growth encouraged by globalisation causes acute ecological crises.[203]
Eco-socialism goes beyond a criticism of the actions of large corporations and targets the inherent properties of capitalism. Such an analysis followsMarx's theories about the contradiction betweenuse values andexchange values. As Kovel explains, within a market economy, goods are not produced to meet needs but are produced to be exchanged for money that we then use to acquire other goods. As we have to keep selling to keep buying, we must persuade others to buy our goods just to ensure our survival, which leads to the production of goods with no previous use that can be sold to sustain our ability to buy other goods. Eco-socialists like Kovel stress that this contradiction has reached a destructive extent, where certain essential activities such as caring for relatives full-time and basic subsistence are unrewarded while unnecessary economic activities earn certain individuals huge fortunes.[203]Agrarian socialism is another variant of eco-socialism.
Green anarchism puts a particular emphasis onenvironmental issues. An important early influence was the thought of the Americanindividualist anarchistHenry David Thoreau and his bookWalden.[204] In the late 19th century, there emerged anaturist current withinindividualist anarchist circles in Cuba, France, Portugal and Spain.[205][206]
Some contemporary green anarchists can be described as anti-civilization orprimitivist anarchists, although not all green anarchists are primitivists. Similarly, there is a strong critique of modern technology among green anarchists, although not all reject it entirely. Important contemporary currents includeanarcho-naturism as the fusion of anarchism and naturist philosophies;anarcho-primitivism which offers a critique of technology and argues that anarchism is best suited to uncivilised ways of life; eco-anarchism which combines older trends of primitivism as well asbioregional democracy,eco-feminism,intentional community,pacifism andsecession that distinguish it from the more general green anarchism;green syndicalism, a green anarchist political stance made up ofanarcho-syndicalist views;social ecology which argues that the hierarchical domination of nature by human stems from the hierarchical domination of human by human;[207] andveganarchism which argues that human liberation and animal liberation are inseparable.[208]
Liberal socialism is apolitical philosophy that incorporatesliberal principles intosocialism.[209] Liberal socialism refuses to abolishcapitalism with a socialist economy[210] and supports amixed economy that includes bothsocial ownership andprivate property incapital goods.[211][212] This synthesis sees liberalism as the political theory that takes the inner freedom of the human spirit as a given and adoptsliberty as the goal, means and rule of shared human life. Socialism is seen as the method to realize this recognition of liberty through political and economic autonomy and emancipation from the grip of pressing material necessity.[213] Principles that can be described as liberal socialist are based on the works of liberal,left-liberal,radical, socialist andanarchist economists and philosophers. Liberal socialism has been particularly prominent in British and Italian politics.[214] Liberal socialist Carlo Rosselli founded the liberal socialist-ledanti-fascist resistance movementGiustizia e Libertà that later became an active combatant against the Fascist regime in Italy during World War II and includedFerruccio Parri (who later becamePrime Minister of Italy) who was amongGiustizia e Libertà's leaders.[215]
Ethical socialism is a variant ofliberal socialism developed by British socialists.[216][217] It became an important ideology within the BritishLabour Party.[218] Ethical socialism was founded in the 1920s byR. H. Tawney, a BritishChristian socialist, and its ideals were connected to Christian socialist,Fabian, andguild socialist ideals.[219] Ethical socialism has been publicly supported by British Prime MinistersRamsay MacDonald,[220]Clement Attlee[221] andTony Blair.[218]
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Libertarian socialism, sometimes calledleft-libertarianism,[222][223]social anarchism[224][225] andsocialist libertarianism,[226] is a political philosophy within the socialist movement that reject the view of socialism as state ownership or command of the means of production[227] within a more general criticism of the state form itself[228][229] as well as ofwage labour relationships within the workplace in the form ofwage slavery.[230] It emphasizesworkers' self-management of the workplace[231] anddecentralized structures of political government,[232] asserting that a society based on freedom and equality can be achieved through abolishingauthoritarian institutions that control certainmeans of production and subordinate the majority to an owning class or political and economicelite.[233] Libertarian socialists generally place their hopes indecentralized means ofdirect democracy andfederal orconfederal associations[234] such ascitizens' assemblies,libertarian municipalism,trade unions, andworkers' councils.[235][236] This is generally done within a general call forliberty[237] andfree association[238] through the identification, criticism and practical dismantling of illegitimate authority in all aspects of human life.[239][120][117][118][240][241][122]
Past and present political currents and movements commonly described as libertarian socialist includeanarchism (anarchist communism,anarcho-syndicalism,[242]collectivist anarchism,mutualism[243]individualist anarchism)[244][245][246][247] as well asautonomism,communalism,libertarian Marxism (council communism andLuxemburgism)[33] participism,revolutionary syndicalism and some versions ofutopian socialism.[248]
Regional socialism includeleft-wing nationalism, a type of socialism based uponsocial equality,popular sovereignty andnational self-determination,[249] especially in relation toanti-imperialism andnational liberation.[250][251]
Abertzale left (Basque:ezker abertzalea, "patriotic left";[252][253] translated in Spanish asizquierda nacionalista radical vasca, "Basque radical nationalist left")[254] is a term used to refer to the parties or organizations of theBasque nationalist/separatist left, stretching fromsocial democracy tocommunism.
This leftist character is highlighted in contrast to the traditionaljeltzale nationalism[255] represented by theBasque Nationalist Party (EAJ-PNV), aconservative andChristian-democratic party, which has long been the largest in theBasque Country. The first examples ofabertzale parties are theBasque Nationalist Republican Party (EAAE-PRNV), active from 1909 to 1913,[256] and theBasque Nationalist Action (EAE-ANV), active from 1930 to 2008.[257] This was the political environment in whichETA was formed. More recently, in 1986, theabertzale left of the EAJ-PNV wing to form the social-democraticBasque Solidarity (EA) party.
Ezker abertzalea (Spanish:izquierda abertzale) is notably used when referring to the leftist-nationalist environment ofBatasuna, an outlawed political party.[258]
In 2011–2012, the mainabertzale parties and groups joined forces in forming a succession of coalitions:Bildu,Amaiur and, finally,EH Bildu. A group of former members of Batasuna were identified by the media as independents ofizquierda abertzale.[259][260][261]
Democratic confederalism, also known as Kurdish communalism or Apoism, is apolitical concept theorized byKurdistan Workers' Party (PKK) leaderAbdullah Öcalan about a system of democraticself-organization[262] with the features of aconfederation based on the principles ofautonomy,direct democracy,political ecology,feminism,multiculturalism,self-defense,self-governance and elements of acooperative economy.[263][264][265] Öcalan reformulated the political objectives of the Kurdish liberation movement, abandoning the oldstatist and centralizing socialist project for a radical and renewed proposal fordemocratic-libertarian socialism that no longer aims at building anindependent state separate fromTurkey, but at establishing anautonomous,democratic anddecentralized entity based on the ideas of democratic confederalism.[266][267]
TheArab Socialist Ba'ath Party has ruledSyria under theAssad Family andIraq underSaddam Hussein based on a tradition ofsecular, non-Marxist socialism. Ba'thist beliefs combineArab socialism,nationalism, andpan-Arabism. The mostly secular ideology often contrasts with that of other Arab governments in the Middle East, which sometimes lean towardsIslamism andtheocracy. The Ba'athists have persecuted socialists in their own countries. In Iraq, the AmericanCentral Intelligence Agency assisted Iraq with a list of communists to eliminate, effectively wiping them out. Socialist Lynn Walsh argues that the Iraqi Ba'athists promoted capitalists from within the party and outside the country.[268]
The Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party, also known as the Ba'ath Party (Arabic:حزب البعث العربي الاشتراكي), is asecularistpan-Arabist political party that synthesizesArab nationalism and Arab socialism. It opposes Westernimperialism and calls for the ethnic "awakening" or "resurrection" of theArab people into a single united state.[269]Ba'ath, also spelled asBa'th orBaath, means resurrection or renaissance. The party's motto, "Unity, Liberty, Socialism" (wahda, hurriya, ishtirakiya), was inspired by the FrenchJacobin political doctrine linking national unity and social equity.[270] In the slogan, "unity" refers to Arab unity, "liberty" emphasizes being free from foreign control and interference, and "socialism" refers to Arab socialism, not European-styleMarxism orcommunism.
The party was founded inDamascus,Syria, in 1940 by the Syrian intellectualsMichel Aflaq andSalah al-Bitar, and since its inception, it has established branches in different Arab countries, although the only countries it has ever held power in are Syria andIraq. Aflaq and al-Bitar both studied at theSorbonne in the early 1930s, at a time whencentre-leftpositivism was still the dominant ideology amongst France's academic elite. The Ba'ath party included a significant number ofChristian Arabs among its founding members. For them, a resolutely nationalist and secular political framework was a suitable way to avoid a faith-based Islamic orientation and to give non-Muslims full acknowledgement as citizens.
In 1955, acoup d'état by the military against the historical leadership of Aflaq and al-Bitar led the Syrian and Iraqi parties to split into rival organizations—theQutriyun (Regionalist) Syria-based party and theQawmiyuri (Nationalist) Iraq-based party.[271] Both Ba'ath parties kept their names and maintained parallel structures, but became so antagonistic that the Syrian Ba'ath government became the only Arab government to support non-ArabIran against Iraq during theIran–Iraq War. In Syria, the Ba'ath Party has had amonopoly on political power since the party's 1963 coup. Ba'athists seized power in Iraq in 1963, but were deposed months later. They returned to power in a 1968 coup and remained the sole party of government until the2003 Iraq invasion. Since then, the party has been banned in Iraq.
The Kuomintang Party (Chinese National People's Party or Chinese Nationalist Party) was founded in theRepublic of China in 1912 bySun Yatsen, a proponent ofChinese nationalism, who foundedRevive China Society inHonolulu,Hawaii, in 1894.[272] Kuomintang ideology featuresThree Principles of the People, which arenationalism,democracy andsocialism. The party has adopted aOne-China policy, arguing that there is only one state called China, and that the Republic of China (not thePeople's Republic of China) is itslegitimate government. The party has had conflicts with the Chinese Communist Party.[273] Since 2008, in order to ease tensions with the People's Republic of China, the party has endorsed the "Three Noes" policy as defined byMa Ying-jeou, namely no unification, no independence and no use of force.[274]
The Kuomintang attempted to levy taxes upon merchants inCanton and the merchants resisted by raising an army, the Merchant's Volunteer Corps. The merchants wereconservative andreactionary and their leader Chen Lianbao was a prominentcomprador trader.[275] Chiang Kai-shek led his army ofWhampoa Military Academy graduates to defeat the merchant's army. He was assisted by Soviet advisors, who supplied him with weapons, while the merchants were supplied with weapons from the Western countries.[276][277] The British led an international flotilla to support the merchants.[277] Chiang seized the Western-supplied weapons from the merchants, and battled against them. A Kuomintang general executed several merchants, and the Kuomintang formed a Soviet-inspired Revolutionary Committee.[278] The Kuomintang's economic and military campaign against merchants continued for many years. Chiang also enforced an anti-Japanese boycott, sending agents to sack the shops of those who sold Japanese-made items, fining them.
The Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng (VNQDĐ) was based on the Chinese Kuomintang, and incorporated socialism and nationalism as part of its ideology. The party sought independence from French colonial rule inVietnam during the early 20th century. Its origins lie in the mid-1920s, when a group of young Hanoi-based intellectuals began publishing revolutionary material. From 1928, the VNQDĐ attracted attention through its assassinations of French officials and Vietnamese collaborators. During the 1930s, the party was eclipsed byHo Chi Minh'sIndochinese Communist Party (ICP). Vietnam was occupied byJapan during World War II and in the chaos that followed the Japanese surrender in 1945 the VNQDĐ and the ICP briefly joined forces in the fight for Vietnamese independence. After a falling out, Ho purged the VNQDĐ, leaving his communist-dominatedViet Minh unchallenged as the foremost anti-colonial militant organisation. As a part of the post-war settlement that ended theFirst Indochina War, Vietnam waspartitioned into two zones. The remnants of the VNQDĐ fled to the anti-communistsouth, where they remained until theFall of Saigon in 1975 and the reunification of Vietnam under communist rule.
Socialism has traditionally been part of theIrish republican movement since the early 20th century, whenJames Connolly, an IrishMarxist theorist, took part in theEaster Rising of 1916. Today, most Irish nationalist and Republican organizations located inNorthern Ireland advocate some form of socialism, both Marxist and non-Marxist. TheSocial Democratic and Labour Party which until recently was the largest nationalist party in Northern Ireland promotes social democracy while militant Republican parties such asSinn Féin,Republican Sinn Féin, and the32 County Sovereignty Movement all promote their own varieties of democratic socialism intended to re-distribute wealth on an all-island basis once aunited Ireland has been achieved. TheIrish Republican Socialist Movement, encompassing theIrish Republican Socialist Party andIrish National Liberation Army as well as the defunctOfficial Irish Republican Army and Irish National Liberation Front are known for promoting an ideology which combinesMarxist–Leninism with traditional revolutionary militant Republicanism and is said to be the most direct fulfillment of Connolly's legacy.
Religious socialism is any form of socialism based on religious values. Members of several major religions have found that their beliefs about human society fit with socialist principles and ideas. As a result, religious socialist movements have developed within these religions.
Buddhist socialism is apolitical ideology which advocatessocialism based on the principles ofBuddhism. Both Buddhism and socialism seek to provide an end to suffering by analyzing its conditions and removing its main causes throughpraxis. Both also seek to provide a transformation of personal consciousness (respectively, spiritual and political) to bring an end to human alienation and selfishness.[279]People who have been described as Buddhist socialists includeBuddhadasa Bhikkhu,[280]B. R. Ambedkar[citation needed]S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike,Han Yong-un,[281]Seno’o Girō,[282]U Nu,Uchiyama Gudō,[283] andNorodom Sihanouk.[284][285]
Bhikkhu Buddhadasa coined the phrase "Dhammic socialism".[280] He believed that socialism is a natural state,[286] meaning all things exist together in one system.[286] Han Yong-un felt that equality was one of the main principles of Buddhism.[281] In an interview published in 1931, Yong-un spoke of his desire to explore Buddhist socialism: "I am recently planning to write about Buddhist socialism. Just like there isChristian socialism as a system of ideas in Christianity, there must be also Buddhist socialism in Buddhism".[281]
Tenzin Gyatso, the FourteenthDalai Lama of Tibet has said that "[o]f all the modern economic theories, the economic system of Marxism is founded on moral principles, while capitalism is concerned only with gain and profitability. [...] The failure of the regime in the former Soviet Union was, for me, not the failure of Marxism but the failure of totalitarianism. For this reason I still think of myself as half-Marxist, half-Buddhist".[287]
There are individuals and groups, past and present, that are clearly both Christian and socialist, such asFrederick Denison Maurice, author ofThe Kingdom of Christ (1838), and theChristian Socialist Movement (UK) (CSM), affiliated with the BritishLabour Party.Distributism, is athird-way economic philosophy formulated by such Catholic thinkers asG. K. Chesterton andHilaire Belloc to apply the principles ofsocial justice articulated by the Roman Catholic Church, especially in PopeLeo XIII's encyclicalRerum novarum.
VariousCatholic clerical parties have at times referred to themselves as Christian Social. Two examples are theChristian Social Party ofKarl Lueger in Austria before and after World War I, and the contemporaryChristian Social Union in Bavaria. Yet these parties have never espoused socialist policies and have always stood at the conservative side ofChristian Democracy.[288]Hugo Chávez ofVenezuela was an advocate of a form of Christian socialism as he claims thatJesus Christ was a socialist.
Christian anarchism is amovement inpolitical theology that combinesanarchism andChristianity.[289] The foundation of Christian anarchism is a rejection of violence, withLeo Tolstoy'sThe Kingdom of God Is Within You regarded as a key text.[290][291] Tolstoy sought to separateRussian Orthodox Christianity—which was merged with thestate—from what he believed was the true message of Jesus as contained in the Gospels, specifically in theSermon on the Mount. Tolstoy takes the viewpoint that all governments who wage war, and churches who in turn support those governments, are an affront to the Christian principles ofnonviolence andnonresistance. Although Tolstoy never actually used the term Christian anarchism inThe Kingdom of God Is Within You, reviews of this book following its publication in 1894 appear to have coined the term.[292][293]
Christian anarchist groups have included theDoukhobors,Catholic Worker Movement and theBrotherhood Church.
Christian communism is a form ofreligious communism based onChristianity. It is a theological and political theory based upon the view that the teachings ofJesus Christ compelChristians to supportcommunism as the idealsocial system. Although there is no universal agreement on the exact date when Christian communism was founded, many Christian communists assert that evidence from theBible (in theActs of the Apostles)[294] suggests that the first Christians, including theapostles, established their own small communist society in the years following Jesus' death and resurrection.[294] As such, many advocates of Christian communism argue that it was taught by Jesus and practiced by the apostles themselves.[295] Some independent historians confirm it.[296][297][298][299][300][301][302][303][304][305][306][307]
Islamic socialism incorporatesIslamic principles tosocialism. As a term, it was coined by variousMuslim leaders to describe a morespiritual form of socialism. Scholars have highlighted the similarities between the Islamic economic system and socialist theory as both socialism and Islam are againstunearned income. Muslim socialists believe that the teachings of theQuran andMuhammad—especially thezakat—are compatible with principles of socialism. They draw inspiration from theearly Medinan welfare state established by Muhammad. Muslim socialists found their roots inanti-imperialism. Muslim socialist leaders believe in the derivation oflegitimacy from the public.
Islamic socialism is the political ideology ofLibya'sMuammar al-Gaddafi, formerIraqi presidentAhmed Hassan al-Bakr,Syrian PresidentHafez al-Assad and of the Pakistani leader ofPakistan Peoples Party,Zulfikar Ali Bhutto.The Green Book (written byMuammar al-Gaddafi) consists of three parts, namely "The Solution of the Problem of Democracy: 'The Authority of the People'", "The Solution of the Economic Problem: 'Socialism'", and "The Social Basis of the Third Universal Theory". The book is controversial because it completely rejects modern conceptions ofliberal democracy and encourages the institution of a form ofdirect democracy based on popular committees. Critics charge that Qaddafi uses these committees as tools ofautocratic political repression in practice.
The Jewish left consists ofJews who identify with, or support,left-wing orliberal causes, consciously as Jews, either as individuals or through organizations. There is no one organization or movement which constitutes the Jewish left, however. Jews have been major forces in the history of thelabor movement, thesettlement house movement, thewomen's rights movement,anti-racist andanti-colonialist work, andanti-fascist andanti-capitalist organizations of many forms inEurope, theUnited States,Algeria,Iraq,Ethiopia, and modern-dayIsrael.[308][better source needed][309][310][311] Jews have a rich history of involvement inanarchism,socialism,Marxism, and Westernliberalism. Although the expression "on the left" covers a range of politics, many well-known figures "on the left" have been of Jews who were born into Jewish families and have various degrees of connection to Jewish communities, Jewish culture, Jewish tradition, or the Jewish religion in its many variants.
Labor Zionism or socialist Zionism[312] (Hebrew:צִיּוֹנוּת סוֹצְיָאלִיסְטִית,translit.Tziyonut sotzyalistit;Hebrew:תְּנוּעָת הָעַבוֹדָהtranslit.Tnu'at ha'avoda, i.e.The labor movement) is theleft wing of theZionist movement. For many years, it was the most significant tendency among Zionists and Zionist organizations. It saw itself as the Zionist sector of the historic Jewishlabor movements of Eastern and Central Europe, eventually developing local units in most countries with sizable Jewish populations. Unlike the "political Zionist" tendency founded byTheodor Herzl and advocated byChaim Weizmann, Labor Zionists did not believe that a Jewish state would be created simply by appealing to the international community or to a powerful nation such asBritain,Germany or theOttoman Empire. Rather, Labor Zionists believed that a Jewish state could only be created through the efforts of the Jewishworking class settling in theLand of Israel and constructing a state through the creation of a progressive Jewish society with ruralkibbutzim andmoshavim and an urban Jewish proletariat.
Labor Zionism grew in size and influence and eclipsed "political Zionism" by the 1930s both internationally and within theBritish Mandate of Palestine where Labor Zionists predominated among many of the institutions of the pre-independence Jewish communityYishuv, particularly thetrade union federation known as theHistadrut. TheHaganah, the largest Zionist paramilitary defense force, was a Labor Zionist institution and was used on occasion (such as duringthe Hunting Season) against right-wing political opponents or to assist the British Administration in capturing rival Jewish militants. Labor Zionists played a leading role in the1948 Arab–Israeli War and Labor Zionists were predominant among the leadership of theIsraeli military for decades after the formation of the state ofIsrael in 1948.
Major theoreticians of the Labor Zionist movement includedMoses Hess,Nachman Syrkin,Ber Borochov, andAaron David Gordon. Leading figures in the movement includedDavid Ben-Gurion,Golda Meir, andBerl Katznelson.
Syndicalism is a radical current in thelabor movement that was most active in the early 20th century. Its main idea is the establishment of local worker-based organizations and the advancement of the demands and rights of workers throughstrikes. According to theMarxist historianEric Hobsbawm, it was predominant in the revolutionary left in the decade which preceded the outbreak ofWorld War I becauseMarxism was mostly reformist at that time.[313]
Major syndicalist organizations included theGeneral Confederation of Labor in France, theNational Confederation of Labor in Spain, theItalian Syndicalist Union, theFree Workers' Union of Germany, and theArgentine Regional Workers' Federation. Although they did not regard themselves as syndicalists, theIndustrial Workers of the World, theIrish Transport and General Workers' Union and the CanadianOne Big Union are considered by most historians to belong to this current.
A number of syndicalist organizations were and still are to this day linked in theInternational Workers' Association, but some of its member organizations left for theInternational Confederation of Labor, formed in 2018.
Socialism may be defined as movements for social ownership and control of the economy. It is this idea that is the common element found in the many forms of socialism.
Pure socialism is defined as a system wherein all of the means of production are owned and run by the government and/or cooperative, nonprofit groups.
A society may be defined as socialist if the major part of the means of production of goods and services is in some sense socially owned and operated, by state, socialised or cooperative enterprises. The practical issues of socialism comprise the relationships between management and workforce within the enterprise, the interrelationships between production units (plan versus markets), and, if the state owns and operates any part of the economy, who controls it and how.
Just as private ownership defines capitalism, social ownership defines socialism. The essential characteristic of socialism in theory is that it destroys social hierarchies, and therefore leads to a politically and economically egalitarian society. Two closely related consequences follow. First, every individual is entitled to an equal ownership share that earns an aliquot part of the total social dividend…Second, in order to eliminate social hierarchy in the workplace, enterprises are run by those employed, and not by the representatives of private or state capital. Thus, the well-known historical tendency of the divorce between ownership and management is brought to an end. The society—i.e. every individual equally—owns capital and those who work are entitled to manage their own economic affairs.
2. (Government, Politics & Diplomacy) any of various social or political theories or movements in which the common welfare is to be achieved through the establishment of a socialist economic system
In order of increasing decentralisation (at least) three forms of socialised ownership can be distinguished: state-owned firms, employee-owned (or socially) owned firms, and citizen ownership of equity.
This term is harder to define, since socialists disagree among themselves about what socialism 'really is.' It would seem that everyone (socialists and nonsocialists alike) could at least agree that it is not a system in which there is widespread private ownership of the means of production...To be a socialist is not just to believe in certain ends, goals, values, or ideals. It also requires a belief in a certain institutional means to achieve those ends; whatever that may mean in positive terms, it certainly presupposes, at a minimum, the belief that these ends and values cannot be achieved in an economic system in which there is widespread private ownership of the means of production...Those who favor socialism generally speak of social ownership, social control, or socialization of the means of production as the distinctive positive feature of a socialist economic system.
Socialists have always recognized that there are many possible forms of social ownership of which co-operative ownership is one...Nevertheless, socialism has throughout its history been inseparable from some form of common ownership. By its very nature it involves the abolition of private ownership of capital; bringing the means of production, distribution, and exchange into public ownership and control is central to its philosophy. It is difficult to see how it can survive, in theory or practice, without this central idea.
There are many forms of socialism, all of which eliminate private ownership of capital and replace it with collective ownership. These many forms, all focused on advancing distributive justice for long-term social welfare, can be divided into two broad types of socialism: nonmarket and market.
More fundamentally, a socialist society must be one in which the economy is run on the principle of the direct satisfaction of human needs. [...] Exchange-value, prices and so money are goals in themselves in a capitalist society or in any market. There is no necessary connection between the accumulation of capital or sums of money and human welfare. Under conditions of backwardness, the spur of money and the accumulation of wealth has led to a massive growth in industry and technology. [...] It seems an odd argument to say that a capitalist will only be efficient in producing use-value of a good quality when trying to make more money than the next capitalist. It would seem easier to rely on the planning of use-values in a rational way, which because there is no duplication, would be produced more cheaply and be of a higher quality. [...] Although money, and so monetary calculation, will disappear in socialism this does not mean that there will no longer be any need to make choices, evaluations and calculations. [...] Wealth will be produced and distributed in its natural form of useful things, of objects that can serve to satisfy some human need or other. Not being produced for sale on a market, items of wealth will not acquire an exchange-value in addition to their use-value. In socialism their value, in the normal non-economic sense of the word, will not be their selling price nor the time needed to produce them but their usefulness. It is for this that they will be appreciated, evaluated, wanted and produced.
This was an ideology which, at bottom, was grounded not in materialism but in morals. Thus Bernstein summoned up Kant to point the way towards a politics of ethical choices.
Regardless of the specific policies they advocated, one thing that joined all budding interwar social democrats was a rejection of the passivity and economic determinism of orthodox Marxism [...] so they often embraced communitarian, corporatist, and even nationalist appeals and urged their parties to make the transition from workers' to 'people's' parties.
The theoretical basis for social democracy has been provided more by moral or religious beliefs, rather than by scientific analysis. Social democrats have not accepted the materialist and highly systematic ideas of Marx and Engels, but rather advanced an essentially moral critique of capitalism.
According to nineteenth-century socialist views, socialism would function without capitalist economic categories – such as money, prices, interest, profits and rent – and thus would function according to laws other than those described by current economic science. While some socialists recognized the need for money and prices at least during the transition from capitalism to socialism, socialists more commonly believed that the socialist economy would soon administratively mobilize the economy in physical units without the use of prices or money.
In the USSR in the late 1980s the system was normally referred to as the 'administrative-command' economy. What was fundamental to this system was not the plan but the role of administrative hierarchies at all levels of decision making; the absence of control over decision making by the population [...].
The decisive distinction between socialist and communist, as in one sense these terms are now ordinarily used, came with the renaming, in 1918, of the Russian Social-Democratic Labour Party (Bolsheviks) as the All-Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks). From that time on, a distinction of socialist from communist, often with supporting definitions such as social democrat or democratic socialist, became widely current, although it is significant that all communist parties, in line with earlier usage, continued to describe themselves as socialist and dedicated to socialism.
One widespread distinction was that socialism socialised production only while communism socialised production and consumption.
By 1888, the term 'socialism' was in general use among Marxists, who had dropped 'communism', now considered an old fashioned term meaning the same as 'socialism'. [...] At the turn of the century, Marxists called themselves socialists. [...] The definition of socialism and communism as successive stages was introduced into Marxist theory by Lenin in 1917 [...], the new distinction was helpful to Lenin in defending his party against the traditional Marxist criticism that Russia was too backward for a socialist revolution.
In a modern sense of the word, communism refers to the ideology of Marxism-Leninism.
Contrary to Western usage, these countries describe themselves as 'Socialist' (not 'Communist'). The second stage (Marx's 'higher phase'), or 'Communism' is to be marked by an age of plenty, distribution according to needs (not work), the absence of money and the market mechanism, the disappearance of the last vestiges of capitalism and the ultimate 'whithering away' of the State.
Among Western journalists the term 'Communist' came to refer exclusively to regimes and movements associated with the Communist International and its offspring: regimes which insisted that they were not communist but socialist, and movements which were barely communist in any sense at all.
The decisive distinction between socialist and communist, as in one sense these terms are now ordinarily used, came with the renaming, in 1918, of the Russian Social-Democratic Labour Party (Bolsheviks) as the All-Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks). From that time on, a distinction of socialist from communist, often with supporting definitions such as social democrat or democratic socialist, became widely current, although it is significant that all communist parties, in line with earlier usage, continued to describe themselves as socialist and dedicated to socialism.
The IAF – IFA fights for : the abolition of all forms of authority whether economical, political, social, religious, cultural or sexual.
Anarchism is the view that a society without the state, or government, is both possible and desirable.[full citation needed]
Where a meager means-tested welfare-state model breeds alienation and competition, a robust universal welfare-state model breeds trust and cooperation. These qualities are necessary to develop a foundation from which to launch other ambitious social projects, and to progress as a society.
Locating Christian anarchism...In political theology
Leo Tolstoy
Christianity was the expression ofclass conflict in Antiquity.
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