In 1568, Spanish explorer andcartographerÁlvaro de Mendaña became the first European known to sail through the archipelago, sighting the island ofNui during an expedition he was making in search ofTerra Australis. The island ofFunafuti, currently serving as the capital, was named Ellice's Island in 1819. Later, the whole group was named Ellice Islands by English hydrographerAlexander George Findlay. In the late 19th century, Great Britain claimed control over the Ellice Islands, designating them as within their sphere of influence.[13] Between 9 and 16 October 1892, CaptainHerbert Gibson ofHMS Curacoa declared each of the Ellice Islands aBritish protectorate. Britain assigned aresident commissioner to administer the Ellice Islands as part of theBritish Western Pacific Territories (BWPT). From 1916 to 1975, they were managed as part of theGilbert and Ellice Islands colony.
The islands do not have a significant amount of soil, so the country relies heavily on imports and fishing for food. Licensing fishing permits to international companies, grants and aid projects, and remittances to their families from Tuvaluan seafarers who work on cargo ships are important parts of the economy. Because it is a low-lying island nation, Tuvalu is extremely vulnerable tosea level rise due toclimate change.[16] It is active in international climate negotiations as part of theAlliance of Small Island States.
Theorigins of the people of Tuvalu are addressed in the theories regarding the migration into the Pacific that began about 3,000 years ago. During pre-European-contact times, there was frequent canoe voyaging between the nearer islands including Samoa andTonga.[17] Eight of the nine islands of Tuvalu were inhabited. This explains the origin of the name, Tuvalu, which means 'eight standing together' inTuvaluan (compare to*walu meaning 'eight' inProto-Austronesian). Possible evidence of human-made fires in theCaves of Nanumanga suggests humans may have occupied the islands for thousands of years.
An importantcreation myth in the islands of Tuvalu is the story ofte Pusi mo te Ali (the Eel and the Flounder), who are said to have created theislands of Tuvalu.Te Ali (theflounder) is believed to be the origin of the flatatolls of Tuvalu andte Pusi (theeel) is the model for thecoconut palms that are important in the lives of Tuvaluans. The stories of the ancestors of the Tuvaluans vary from island to island. OnNiutao,[18] Funafuti andVaitupu, the founding ancestor is described as being from Samoa,[19][20] whereas onNanumea, the founding ancestor is described as being fromTonga.[19]
Tuvalu was first sighted by Europeans on 16 January 1568, during the voyage ofÁlvaro de Mendaña from Spain, who sailed pastNui and charted it asIsla de Jesús (Spanish for "Island of Jesus") because the previous day was the feast of theHoly Name. Mendaña made contact with the islanders but was unable to land.[22][23] During Mendaña's second voyage across the Pacific, he passedNiulakita on 29 August 1595, which he namedLa Solitaria.[23][24]
CaptainJohn Byron passed through the islands of Tuvalu in 1764, during his circumnavigation of the globe as captain of theDolphin (1751).[25] He charted the atolls asLagoon Islands. The first recorded sighting ofNanumea by Europeans was by Spanish naval officerFrancisco Mourelle de la Rúa who sailed past it on 5 May 1781 as captain of the frigateLa Princesa, when attempting a southern crossing of the Pacific from the Philippines toNew Spain. He charted Nanumea asSan Augustin.[26][27] Keith S. Chambers and Doug Munro (1980) identifiedNiutao as the island that Mourelle also sailed past on 5 May 1781, thus solving what Europeans had calledThe Mystery of Gran Cocal.[24][28] Mourelle's map and journal named the islandEl Gran Cocal ('The Great Coconut Plantation'); however, the latitude and longitude was uncertain.[28] Longitude could be reckoned only crudely at the time, as accuratechronometers did not become available until the late 18th century.
In 1809, Captain Patterson in the brigElizabeth sighted Nanumea while passing through the northern Tuvalu waters on a trading voyage from Port Jackson, Sydney, Australia to China.[26]In May 1819, Arent Schuyler de Peyster, of New York, captain of the armedbrigantine orprivateerRebecca, sailing under British colours,[29][30] passed through the southern Tuvaluan waters. De Peyster sightedNukufetau, and Funafuti which he named Ellice's Island after an English politician,Edward Ellice, the Member of Parliament for Coventry and the owner of theRebecca's cargo.[28][31][32] The name Ellice was applied to all nine islands after the work of EnglishhydrographerAlexander George Findlay.[33]
In 1820, the Russian explorerMikhail Lazarev visited Nukufetau as commander of theMirny.[28]Louis-Isidore Duperrey, captain ofLa Coquille, sailed pastNanumanga in May 1824 during a circumnavigation of the Earth (1822–1825).[34] A Dutch expedition by the frigateMaria Reigersberg[35] under captain Koerzen, and the corvettePollux under captain C. Eeg, foundNui on the morning of 14 June 1825 and named the main island (Fenua Tapu) asNederlandsch Eiland.[36]
Whalers began roving the Pacific, although they visited Tuvalu only infrequently because of the difficulties of landing on the atolls. The American Captain George Barrett of theNantucket whalerIndependence II has been identified as the first whaler to hunt the waters around Tuvalu.[31] He bartered coconuts from the people ofNukulaelae in November 1821, and also visitedNiulakita.[24] He established a shore camp onSakalua islet ofNukufetau, where coal was used to melt down the whale blubber.[37]
Christianity came to Tuvalu in 1861 whenElekana, a deacon of aCongregational church inManihiki,Cook Islands, became caught in a storm and drifted for eight weeks before landing at Nukulaelae on 10 May 1861.[28][38] Elekana beganpreaching Christianity. He was trained atMalua Theological College, aLondon Missionary Society (LMS) school in Samoa, before beginning his work in establishing theChurch of Tuvalu.[28] In 1865, the Rev. Archibald Wright Murray of the LMS, aProtestant congregationalist missionary society, arrived as the first European missionary; he also evangelised among the inhabitants of Tuvalu. By 1878 Protestantism was considered well established, as there were preachers on each island.[28] In the later 19th and early 20th centuries, the ministers of what became theChurch of Tuvalu (Te Ekalesia Kelisiano Tuvalu) were predominantly Samoans,[39] who influenced the development of theTuvaluan language and themusic of Tuvalu.[40]
For less than a year between 1862 and 1863, Peruvian ships engaged in the so-called "blackbirding" trade, by which they recruited or impressed workers, combed the smaller islands ofPolynesia fromEaster Island in the eastern Pacific to Tuvalu and the southern atolls of the Gilbert Islands (now Kiribati). They sought recruits to fill the extreme labour shortage in Peru.[41] On Funafuti and Nukulaelae, the resident traders facilitated the recruiting of the islanders by the "blackbirders".[42] The Rev. Archibald Wright Murray,[43] the earliest European missionary in Tuvalu, reported that in 1863 about 170 people were taken from Funafuti and about 250 were taken from Nukulaelae,[28] as there were fewer than 100 of the 300 recorded in 1861 as living on Nukulaelae.[44][45]
The islands came into Britain's sphere of influence in the late 19th century, when each of the Ellice Islands was declared aBritish protectorate by CaptainHerbert Gibson ofHMS Curacoa, between 9 and 16 October 1892.[46]
Trading companies became active in Tuvalu in the mid-19th century; the trading companies engaged white (palagi) traders who lived on the islands. John (also known as Jack) O'Brien was the first European to settle in Tuvalu; he became a trader on Funafuti in the 1850s. He married Salai, the daughter of the paramount chief of Funafuti.Louis Becke, who later found success as a writer, was a trader onNanumanga from April 1880 until the trading station was destroyed later that year in acyclone.[47] He then became a trader onNukufetau.[48][49][50]
In 1892, CaptainEdward Davis ofHMS Royalist reported on trading activities and traders on each of the islands visited. Captain Davis identified the following traders in the Ellice Group: Edmund Duffy (Nanumea);Jack Buckland (Niutao); Harry Nitz (Vaitupu); Jack O'Brien (Funafuti);Alfred Restieaux and Emile Fenisot (Nukufetau); andMartin Kleis (Nui).[51][52] During this time, the greatest number of palagi traders lived on the atolls, acting as agents for the trading companies. Some islands would have competing traders, while dryer islands might only have a single trader.[42]
In the 1890s, structural changes occurred in the operation of the Pacific trading companies; they moved from a practice of having traders resident on each island to instead becoming a business operation where thesupercargo (the cargo manager of a trading ship) would deal directly with the islanders when a ship visited an island.[42] After the high point in the 1880s,[42] the numbers of palagi traders in Tuvalu declined; the last of them wereFred Whibley on Niutao,Alfred Restieaux on Nukufetau,[53][54] andMartin Kleis on Nui.[52] By 1909 there were no more resident palagi traders representing the trading companies,[52][42] although Whibley, Restieaux and Kleis[55] remained in the islands until their deaths.
In 1890,Robert Louis Stevenson, his wifeFanny Vandegrift Stevenson and her sonLloyd Osbourne sailed on theJanet Nicoll, a trading steamer owned byHenderson and Macfarlane of Auckland, New Zealand, which operated between Sydney and Auckland and into the central Pacific.[61] TheJanet Nicoll visited three of the Ellice Islands;[62] while Fanny records that they made landfall at Funafuti, Niutao andNanumea, Jane Resture suggests that it was more likely they landed at Nukufetau rather than Funafuti,[63] as Fanny describes meetingAlfred Restieaux and his wife Litia; however, they had been living on Nukufetau since the 1880s.[53][54] An account of this voyage was written by Fanny Stevenson and published under the titleThe Cruise of the Janet Nichol,[64] together with photographs taken by Robert Louis Stevenson and Lloyd Osbourne.
In 1894, Count RudolfFestetics de Tolna, his wife Eila (née Haggin) and her daughter Blanche Haggin visited Funafuti aboard the yachtLe Tolna.[65] The Count spent several days photographing men and women on Funafuti.[66][67]
The boreholes on Funafuti, at the site now calledDarwin's Drill,[68] are the result of drilling conducted by theRoyal Society of London for the purpose of investigating theformation of coral reefs to determine whether traces of shallow water organisms could be found at depth in thecoral of Pacific atolls. This investigation followed the work onThe Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs conducted byCharles Darwin in the Pacific. Drilling occurred in 1896, 1897 and 1898.[69] ProfessorEdgeworth David of theUniversity of Sydney was a member of the 1896 "Funafuti Coral Reef Boring Expedition of the Royal Society", underProfessor William Sollas and led the expedition in 1897.[70] Photographers on these trips recorded people, communities, and scenes at Funafuti.[71]
Charles Hedley, a naturalist at theAustralian Museum, accompanied the 1896 expedition, and during his stay on Funafuti he collectedinvertebrate andethnological objects. The descriptions of these were published inMemoir III of the Australian Museum Sydney between 1896 and 1900. Hedley also wrote theGeneral Account of the Atoll of Funafuti,The Ethnology of Funafuti,[72] andThe Mollusca of Funafuti.[73][74]Edgar Waite was also part of the 1896 expedition and publishedThe mammals, reptiles, and fishes of Funafuti.[75]William Rainbow described the spiders and insects collected at Funafuti inThe insect fauna of Funafuti.[76]
The islanders assisted the American forces to build airfields on Funafuti, Nanumea and Nukufetau and to unload supplies from ships.[80] On Funafuti, the islanders shifted to the smaller islets so as to allow the American forces to build the airfield andNaval Base Funafuti onFongafale.[81] A Naval Construction Battalion (Seabees) built a seaplane ramp on the lagoon side of Fongafale islet, for seaplane operations by both short- and long-range seaplanes, and a compacted coral runway was also constructed on Fongafale,[82] with runways also constructed to createNanumea Airfield[83] andNukufetau Airfield.[84] USNPatrol Torpedo Boats (PTs) andseaplanes were based atNaval Base Funafuti from 2 November 1942 to 11 May 1944.[85]
The atolls of Tuvalu acted as staging posts during the preparation for theBattle of Tarawa and theBattle of Makin that commenced on 20 November 1943, which were part of the implementation of "Operation Galvanic".[86][87] After the war, the military airfield on Funafuti was developed intoFunafuti International Airport.
In 1974, the ministerial government was introduced to theGilbert and Ellice Islands Colony through a change to the Constitution. In that year a general election was held,[90] and areferendum was held in 1974 to determine whether the Gilbert Islands and Ellice Islands should each have their own administration.[91] As a consequence of the referendum, separation occurred in two stages. The Tuvaluan Order 1975, which took effect on 1 October 1975, recognised Tuvalu as a separateCrown Colony with its own government.[92] The second stage occurred on 1 January 1976, when separate administrations were created out of the civil service of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony.[93]: 169 [94]
Elections to the House of Assembly of the British Colony of Tuvalu were held on 27 August 1977, withToaripi Lauti being appointed chief minister in the House of Assembly of the Colony of Tuvalu on 1 October 1977. The House of Assembly was dissolved in July 1978, with the government of Toaripi Lauti continuing as acaretaker government until the 1981 elections were held.[97]
On 15 November 2022, amidst sea level rises, Tuvalu announced plans as the first country in the world to build a self-digital replica in themetaverse in order to preserve its cultural heritage.[100]
On 10 November 2023, Tuvalu signed theFalepili Union treaty with Australia.[101] In the Tuvaluan language,Falepili describes the traditional values of good neighbourliness, care and mutual respect.[102] The Treaty addresses climate change and security,[102] with security threats encompassing major natural disasters, health pandemics and traditional security threats.[102] The implementation of the Treaty will involve Australia increasing its contribution to theTuvalu Trust Fund and theTuvalu Coastal Adaptation Project.[102] Australia will also provide a pathway for 280 citizens of Tuvalu to migrate to Australia each year, to enableclimate-related mobility for Tuvaluans.[102][103]
Map of Tuvalu, showing major towns and islandsA beach at Funafuti atoll
Tuvalu is a volcanicarchipelago, and consists of threereef islands (Nanumanga,Niutao andNiulakita) and six trueatolls (Funafuti,Nanumea,Nui,Nukufetau,Nukulaelae andVaitupu).[104] Its small, scattered group of low-lying atolls have poor soil and a total land area of only about 26 square kilometres (10 square miles) making it thefourth smallest country in the world. The highest elevation is 4.6 metres (15 ft) above sea level onNiulakita; however, the low-lying atolls and reef islands of Tuvalu are susceptible to seawater flooding during cyclones and storms.[105] The sea level at the Funafuti tide gauge has risen at 3.9 mm per year, which is approximately twice the global average.[106] However, over four decades, there had been a net increase in land area of the islets of 0.74 square kilometres (0.3 square miles) (2.9%), although the changes are not uniform, with 74% increasing and 27% decreasing in size. A 2018 report stated that the rising sea levels are identified as creating an increased transfer of wave energy across reef surfaces, which shifts sand, resulting in accretion to island shorelines.[104] The Tuvalu Prime Minister objected to the report's implication that there were "alternate" strategies for Islanders to adapt to rising sea levels, and criticised it for neglecting issues such assaltwater intrusion into groundwater tables as a result of sea level rise.[107]
Funafuti is the largest atoll, and comprises numerous islets around a central lagoon that is approximately 25.1 kilometres (15.6 miles) (N–S) by 18.4 kilometres (11.4 miles) (W-E), centred on 179°7'E and 8°30'S. On the atolls, an annular reef rim surrounds the lagoon with seven natural reef channels.[108] Surveys were carried out in May 2010 of thereef habitats of Nanumea, Nukulaelae and Funafuti; a total of 317 fish species were recorded during thisTuvalu Marine Life study. The surveys identified 66 species that had not previously been recorded in Tuvalu, which brings the total number of identified species to 607.[109][110] Tuvalu'sexclusive economic zone (EEZ) covers an oceanic area of approximately 900,000 km2.[111]
Tuvalu signed theConvention on Biological Diversity (CBD) in 1992, and ratified it in December 2002.[112][113] The predominant vegetation type on the islands of Tuvalu is the cultivated coconut woodland, which covers 43% of the land. The native broadleaf forest is limited to 4.1% of the vegetation types,[114] with 40% of the native broadleaf forest of Funafuti contained in theFunafuti Conservation Area. Tuvalu contains theWestern Polynesian tropical moist forests terrestrial ecoregion.[115]
The eastern shoreline of Funafuti Lagoon onFongafale was modified during World War II when the airfield (nowFunafuti International Airport) was constructed. The coral base of the atoll was used as fill to create the runway. The resultingborrow pits impacted the fresh-wateraquifer. In the low-lying areas of Funafuti, the sea water can be seen bubbling up through the porous coral rock to form pools with each high tide.[116][117] In 2014, the Tuvalu Borrow Pits Remediation (BPR) project was approved so that 10 borrow pits would be filled with sand from the lagoon, leaving Tafua Pond, which is a natural pond. The New Zealand Government funded the BPR project.[118] The project was carried out in 2015, with 365,000 sqm of sand being dredged from the lagoon to fill the holes and improve living conditions on the island. This project increased the usable land space on Fongafale by eight per cent.[119]
During World War II, several piers were also constructed onFongafale in the Funafuti Lagoon; beach areas were filled and deep-water access channels were excavated. These alterations to the reef and shoreline resulted in changes to wave patterns, with less sand accumulating to form the beaches, compared to former times. Attempts to stabilise the shoreline did not achieve the desired effect.[120] In December 2022, work on the Funafuti reclamation project commenced, which is part of theTuvalu Coastal Adaptation Project. Sand was dredged from the lagoon to construct a platform onFongafale islet that is 780 metres (2,560 ft) meters long and 100 metres (330 ft) meters wide, giving a total area of approximately 7.8 ha. (19.27 acres), which is designed to remain above sea level rise and the reach of storm waves beyond the year 2100.[121] The platform starts from the northern boundary of the Queen Elizabeth Park (QEP) reclamation area and extends to the northern Tausoa BeachGroyne and the Catalina Ramp Harbour.[122]
Thereefs at Funafuti suffered damage during theEl Niño events that occurred between 1998 and 2001, with an average of 70% of the Staghorn (Acropora spp.) corals becoming bleached as a consequence of the increase in ocean temperatures.[123][124][125] A reef restoration project has investigated reef restoration techniques;[126] and researchers from Japan have investigated rebuilding thecoral reefs through the introduction offoraminifera.[127] The project of the Japan International Cooperation Agency is designed to increase the resilience of the Tuvalu coast against sea level rise, through ecosystem rehabilitation and regeneration and through support for sand production.[128]
The rising population has resulted in an increased demand on fish stocks, which are under stress,[124] although the creation of theFunafuti Conservation Area has provided a fishing exclusion area to help sustain the fish population across the Funafuti lagoon.[129] Population pressure on the resources of Funafuti, and inadequate sanitation systems, have resulted in pollution.[130][131] The Waste Operations and Services Act of 2009 provides the legal framework for waste management and pollution control projects funded by the European Union directed at organic waste composting in eco-sanitation systems.[132] The Environment Protection (Litter and Waste Control) Regulation 2013 is intended to improve the management of the importation of non-biodegradable materials.Plastic waste is a problem in Tuvalu, for much imported food and other commodities are supplied in plastic containers or packaging.
Tuvalu experiences two distinct seasons, a wet season from November to April and a dry season from May to October.[136] Westerly gales and heavy rain are the predominant weather conditions from November to April, the period that is known asTau-o-lalo, with tropical temperatures moderated by easterly winds from May to October.
Tuvalu experiences the effects ofEl Niño andLa Niña, which is caused by changes in ocean temperatures in the equatorial and central Pacific. El Niño effects increase the chances of tropical storms andcyclones, while La Niña effects increase the chances of drought. Typically the islands of Tuvalu receive between 200 and 400 mm (8 and 16 in) of rainfall per month. The central Pacific Ocean experiences changes from periods of La Niña to periods of El Niño.[137]
As low-lying islands lacking a surrounding shallow shelf, the communities of Tuvalu are especially susceptible to changes in sea level and undissipated storms.[139][140][141] At its highest, Tuvalu is only 4.6 metres (15 ft) above sea level. Tuvaluan leaders have been concerned about the effects of rising sea levels.[142] It is estimated that a sea level rise of 20–40 centimetres (7.9–15.7 inches) in the next 100 years could make Tuvalu uninhabitable.[143][144] A study published in 2018 estimated the change in land area of Tuvalu's nine atolls and 101 reef islands between 1971 and 2014, indicating that 75% of the islands had grown in area, with an overall increase of more than 2%.[145]Enele Sopoaga, the prime minister of Tuvalu at the time, responded to the research by stating that Tuvalu is not expanding and has gained no additional habitable land.[146][147] Sopoaga has also said that evacuating the islands is the last resort.[148]
Whether there are measurable changes in the sea level relative to the islands of Tuvalu is a contentious issue.[149][150] There were problems associated with the pre-1993 sea level records from Funafuti which resulted in improvements in the recording technology to provide more reliable data for analysis.[144] The degree of uncertainty as to estimates of sea level change relative to the islands of Tuvalu was reflected in the conclusions made in 2002 from the available data.[144] The uncertainty as to the accuracy of the data from this tide gauge resulted in a modern Aquatrak acoustic gauge being installed in 1993 by theAustralian National Tidal Facility (NTF) as part of the AusAID-sponsored South Pacific Sea Level and Climate Monitoring Project.[151] The 2011 report of thePacific Climate Change Science Program published by the Australian Government,[152] concludes: "The sea-level rise near Tuvalu measured by satellite altimeters since 1993 is about 5 mm (0.2 in) per year."[153]
Tuvalu has adopted a national plan of action as the observable transformations over the last ten to fifteen years show Tuvaluans that there have been changes to the sea levels.[154] These include sea water bubbling up through the porous coral rock to form pools at high tide and the flooding of low-lying areas including the airport duringspring tides andking tides.[116][117][155][156][157]
In November 2022,Simon Kofe, Minister for Justice, Communication & Foreign Affairs, proclaimed that in response to rising sea levels and the perceived failures by the outside world to combat global warming, the country would be uploading a virtual version of itself to the metaverse in an effort to preserve its history and culture.[158]
The major concerns about climate change has led to the launching and development of the National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA). These adaptation measures are needed to decrease the amount and volume of the negative effects from climate change. NAPA has selected seven adaptation projects with all different themes. These are: coastal, agricultural, water, health, fisheries (two different projects) and disaster. For example, a "target" of one of these projects, like the project "coastal", is "increasing resilience of coastal areas and settlement to climate change". And for the project "water" it is "adaptation to frequent water shortages through increasing household water capacity, water collection accessories, and water conservation techniques".[159]
TheTuvalu Coastal Adaptation Project (TCAP) was launched in 2017 for the purpose on enhancing the resilience of the islands of Tuvalu to meet the challenges resulting from higher sea levels.[160] Tuvalu was the first country in the Pacific to access climate finance fromGreen Climate Fund, with the support of theUNDP.[160] In December 2022, work on the Funafuti reclamation project commenced. The project is to dredge sand from the lagoon to construct a platform onFunafuti that is 780 metres (2,560 ft) meters long and 100 metres (330 ft) meters wide, giving a total area of approximately 7.8 ha. (19.27 acres), which is designed to remain above sea level rise and the reach of storm waves beyond the year 2100.[160] The AustralianDepartment of Foreign Affairs and Trade (DFAT) also provided funding for the TCAP. Further projects that are part of TCAP are capital works on the outer islands ofNanumea andNanumaga aimed at reducing exposure to coastal damage resulting from storms.[160]
Ocean side of Funafuti atoll showing the storm dunes, the highest point on the atoll
Because of the low elevation, the islands that make up this country are vulnerable to the effects oftropical cyclones and by the threat of current and futuresea level rise.[130][161][162] A warning system, which uses theIridium satellite network, was introduced in 2016 to allow outlying islands to be better prepared for natural disasters.[163]
The highest elevation is 4.6 metres (15 ft) above sea level onNiulakita.[164] Tuvalu thus has the second-lowest maximum elevation of any country (after theMaldives). The highest elevations are typically in narrow storm dunes on the ocean side of the islands which are prone to overtopping in tropical cyclones, as occurred withCyclone Bebe, which was a very early-season storm that passed through the Tuvaluan atolls in October 1972.[165] Cyclone Bebe submerged Funafuti, eliminating 95% of structures on the island, with 6 people lost in the cyclone.[166] Sources of drinking water were contaminated as a result of the system's storm surge and the flooding of the sources of fresh water.[167]
George Westbrook, a trader on Funafuti, recorded a cyclone that struck Funafuti on 23–24 December 1883.[168] A cyclone struck Nukulaelae on 17–18 March 1886.[168]A cyclone caused severe damage to the islands in 1894.[169]
Tuvalu experienced an average of three cyclones per decade between the 1940s and 1970s; however, eight occurred in the 1980s.[105] The impact of individual cyclones is subject to variables including the force of the winds and also whether a cyclone coincides with high tides. Funafuti'sTepuka Vili Viliislet was devastated byCyclone Meli in 1979, with all its vegetation and most of its sand swept away during the cyclone. Along with atropical depression that affected the islands a few days later,Severe Tropical Cyclone Ofa had a major impact on Tuvalu with most islands reporting damage to vegetation and crops.[170][171]Cyclone Gavin was first identified during 2 March 1997, and was the first of three tropical cyclones to affect Tuvalu during the 1996–97 cyclone season, with CyclonesHina andKeli following later in the season.
In March 2015, the winds and storm surge created byCyclone Pam resulted in waves of 3 to 5 metres (9.8 to 16.4 ft) breaking over the reef of the outer islands, causing damage to houses, crops and infrastructure.[172][173] A state of emergency was declared. On Nui, the sources of fresh water were destroyed or contaminated.[174][175][176] The flooding in Nui and Nukufetau caused many families to shelter in evacuation centres or with other families.[177] Nui suffered the most damage of the three central islands (Nui, Nukufetau and Vaitupu);[178] with both Nui and Nukufetau suffering the loss of 90% of the crops.[179] Of the three northern islands (Nanumanga, Niutao and Nanumea), Nanumanga suffered the most damage, with from 60 to 100 houses flooded, with the waves also causing damage to the health facility.[179]Vasafua islet, part of theFunafuti Conservation Area, was severely damaged by Cyclone Pam. The coconut palms were washed away, leaving the islet as a sand bar.[180][181]
The Tuvalu Government carried out assessments of the damage caused by Cyclone Pam to the islands and has provided medical aid, food as well as assistance for the cleaning-up of storm debris. Government and Non-Government Organisations provided assistance technical, funding and material support to Tuvalu to assist with recovery, includingWHO,UNICEF EAPRO,UNDP Asia-Pacific Development Information Programme,OCHA,World Bank,DFAT,New Zealand Red Cross &IFRC,Fiji National University and governments of New Zealand, Netherlands, UAE, Taiwan and the United States.[182]
Despite passing over 500 km (310 mi) to the south of the island nation,Cyclone Tino and its associated convergence zone impacted the whole of Tuvalu between January 16 - 19 of 2020.[183][184]
Tuvalu is also affected byperigean spring tide events which raise the sea level higher than a normalhigh tide.[185] The highest peak tide recorded by theTuvalu Meteorological Service is 3.4 metres (11 ft), on 24 February 2006 and again on 19 February 2015.[186] As a result of the historical sea level rise, theking tide events lead to flooding of low-lying areas, which is compounded when sea levels are further raised byLa Niña effects or local storms and waves.[187][188]
Rainwater harvesting is the principal source of fresh water in Tuvalu. Nukufetau, Vaitupu and Nanumea are the only islands with sustainable groundwater supplies. The effectiveness of rainwater harvesting is diminished because of poor maintenance of roofs, gutters and pipes.[189][190] Aid programmes of Australia and the European Union have been directed to improving the storage capacity on Funafuti and in the outer islands.[191]
Reverse osmosis (R/O) desalination units supplement rainwater harvesting on Funafuti. The 65 m3 desalination plant operates at a real production level of around 40 m3 per day. R/O water is only intended to be produced when storage falls below 30%; however, demand to replenish household storage supplies with tanker-delivered water means that the R/O desalination units are continually operating. Water is delivered at a cost of A$3.50 per m3. Cost of production and delivery has been estimated at A$6 per m3, with the difference subsidised by the government.[189]
In July 2012, a United Nations Special Rapporteur called on the Tuvalu Government to develop a national water strategy to improve access to safe drinking water and sanitation.[192][193] In 2012, Tuvalu developed a National Water Resources Policy under the Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) Project and the Pacific Adaptation to Climate Change (PACC) Project, which are sponsored by the Global Environment Fund/SOPAC. Government water planning has established a target of between 50 and 100L of water per person per day accounting for drinking water, cleaning, community and cultural activities.[189]
Tuvalu is working with theSouth Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission (SOPAC) to implement composting toilets and to improve the treatment of sewage sludge from septic tanks onFongafale, for septic tanks are leaking into thefreshwater lens in the sub-surface of the atoll as well as the ocean and lagoon. Composting toilets reduce water use by up to 30%.[189]
From 1974 (the creation of the British colony of Tuvalu) until independence, the legislative body of Tuvalu was called theHouse of the Assembly orFale I Fono. Following independence in October 1978, the House of the Assembly was renamed theParliament of Tuvalu orPalamene o Tuvalu.[97] The place at which the parliament sits is called theVaiaku maneapa.[196] Themaneapa on each island is an open meeting place where the chiefs and elders deliberate and make decisions.[196]
Theunicameral Parliament has 16 members, with elections held every four years. The members of parliament select the Prime Minister (who is thehead of government) and theSpeaker of Parliament. The ministers that form theCabinet are appointed by the Governor General on the advice of the Prime Minister. There are no formal political parties; election campaigns are largely based on personal/family ties and reputations.
The 2023 amendments to theConstitution recognise theFalekaupule as the traditional governing authorities of the islands of Tuvalu.[197]
TheTuvalu National Library and Archives holds "vital documentation on the cultural, social and political heritage of Tuvalu", including surviving records from thecolonial administration, as well as Tuvalu government archives.[198]
The national strategy planTe Kete – National Strategy for Sustainable Development 2021–2030 sets out the development agenda of the Government of Tuvalu,[200][201] which followed on fromTe Kakeega III – National Strategy for Sustainable Development-2016-2020 (TK III). The areas of development in these strategic plans include education; climate change; environment; migration and urbanisation.[200][202]
TheTuvalu National Council for Women acts as an umbrella organisation for non-governmental women's rights groups throughout the country and works closely with the government.[203]
There are eight Island Courts and Lands Courts; appeals in relation to land disputes are made to the Lands Courts Appeal Panel. Appeals from the Island Courts and the Lands Courts Appeal Panel are made to the Magistrates Court, which has jurisdiction to hear civil cases involving up to$T10,000. The superior court is theHigh Court of Tuvalu as it has unlimited original jurisdiction to determine theLaw of Tuvalu and to hear appeals from the lower courts. Rulings of the High Court can be appealed to theCourt of Appeal of Tuvalu. From the Court of Appeal, there is a right of appeal to His Majesty in Council, i.e., thePrivy Council in London.[204][205]
With regard to the judiciary, "the first female Island Court magistrate was appointed to the Island Court in Nanumea in the 1980s and another in Nukulaelae in the early 1990s." There were 7 female magistrates in the Island Courts of Tuvalu (as of 2007) in comparison "to the past where only one woman magistrate served in the Magistrate Court of Tuvalu."[206]
TheLaw of Tuvalu comprises the Acts voted into law by the Parliament of Tuvalu and statutory instruments that become law; certain Acts passed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom (during the time Tuvalu was either a British protectorate or British colony); thecommon law; andcustomary law (particularly in relation to the ownership of land).[204][205] The land tenure system is largely based onkaitasi (extended family ownership).[207]
A major international priority for Tuvalu in the UN, at the 2002Earth Summit inJohannesburg, South Africa and in other international fora, is promoting concern about global warming and the possible sea level rising. Tuvalu advocates ratification and implementation of theKyoto Protocol. In December 2009, the islands stalled talks on climate change at theUnited Nations Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen, fearing some other developing countries were not committing fully to binding deals on a reduction in carbon emissions. Their chief negotiator stated, "Tuvalu is one of the most vulnerable countries in the world to climate change and our future rests on the outcome of this meeting."[216]
Tuvalu participates in theAlliance of Small Island States (AOSIS), which is a coalition of small island and low-lying coastal countries that have concerns about their vulnerability to the adverse effects of global climate change. Under theMajuro Declaration, which was signed on 5 September 2013, Tuvalu has made a commitment to implement power generation of100% renewable energy (between 2013 and 2020), which is proposed to be implemented using Solar PV (95% of demand) and biodiesel (5% of demand). The feasibility of wind power generation will be considered.[217] Tuvalu participates in the operations of thePacific Islands Applied Geoscience Commission (SOPAC) and theSecretariat of the Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP).[218]
Tuvalu is party to a treaty of friendship with the United States, signed soon after independence and ratified by theUS Senate in 1983, under which the United States renounced prior territorial claims to four Tuvaluan islands (Funafuti,Nukufetau,Nukulaelae andNiulakita) under theGuano Islands Act of 1856.[219]
Tuvalu participates in the operations of thePacific Islands Forum Fisheries Agency (FFA)[220] and theWestern and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission (WCPFC).[221] The Tuvaluan government, theUS government, and the governments of other Pacific islands are parties to the South Pacific Tuna Treaty (SPTT), which entered into force in 1988.[222] Tuvalu is also a member of theNauru Agreement which addresses the management of tunapurse seine fishing in the tropical western Pacific. The United States and the Pacific Islands countries have negotiated the Multilateral Fisheries Treaty (which encompasses the South Pacific Tuna Treaty) to confirm access to the fisheries in the Western and Central Pacific for US tuna boats. Tuvalu and the other members of the Pacific Islands Forum Fisheries Agency (FFA) and the United States have settled a tuna fishing deal for 2015; a longer-term deal will be negotiated. The treaty is an extension of the Nauru Agreement and provides for the US flagged purse seine vessels to fish 8,300 days in the region in return for a payment of US$90 million made up by tuna fishing industry and US-Government contributions.[223] In 2015, Tuvalu refused to sell fishing days to certain nations and fleets that have blocked Tuvaluan initiatives to develop and sustain their own fishery.[224] In 2016, the Minister of Natural Resources drew attention to Article 30 of the WCPF Convention, which describes the collective obligation of members to consider the disproportionate burden that management measures might place on small-island developing states.[225]
In July 2013, Tuvalu signed the memorandum of understanding (MOU) to establish the Pacific Regional Trade and Development Facility, which Facility originated in 2006, in the context of negotiations for an Economic Partnership Agreement (EPA) between Pacific ACP States and theEuropean Union. The rationale for the creation of the Facility being to improve the delivery of aid to Pacific island countries in support of theAid-for-Trade (AfT) requirements. The Pacific ACP States are the countries in the Pacific that are signatories to theCotonou Agreement with theEuropean Union.[226] On 31 May 2017 the first enhanced High Level Political Dialogue between Tuvalu and the European Union under the Cotonou Agreement was held in Funafuti.[227]
On 18 February 2016, Tuvalu signed the Pacific Islands Development Forum Charter and formally joined the Pacific Islands Development Forum (PIDF).[228] In June 2017, Tuvalu signed thePacific Agreement on Closer Economic Relations (PACER).[229][230] Tuvalu ratified the PACER agreement in January 2022. The agreement is designed to reduce trade barriers between signatories of the agreement. Existing import tariffs will reduce to zero, and the agreement contemplates additional actions to reduce trade barriers, including harmonizing customs procedures and rules of origin, as well as eliminating restrictions to services trade, and improving labour mobility schemes between countries.[231]
Tuvalu has no regular military forces, and spends no money on the military. Its national police force, theTuvalu Police Force headquartered in Funafuti, includes a maritimesurveillance unit, customs, prisons and immigration. Police officers wearBritish-styleuniforms.
From 1994 to 2019 Tuvalu policed its 200-kilometreexclusive economic zone with thePacific-class patrol boatHMTSSTe Mataili, provided by Australia.[232] In 2019, Australia gifted aGuardian-class patrol boat as replacement.[233] NamedHMTSSTe Mataili II, it is meant for use in maritime surveillance,fishery patrol and for search-and-rescue missions.[234] ("HMTSS" stands forHis/Her Majesty's Tuvaluan State Ship or forHis/Her Majesty's Tuvalu Surveillance Ship.)Te Mataili II was severely damaged by cyclones.[235] On 16 October 2024 Australia handed over a Guardian-class patrol boat to Tuvalu, which was named HMTSSTe Mataili III.[236]
In May 2023 the Government of Tuvalu signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) with Sea Shepherd Global, which is based in the Netherlands, to combatillegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) fishing in Tuvalu'sExclusive Economic Zone (EEZ).[235] Sea Shepherd Global will provide theAllankay, a 54.6 metres (179 ft) motor vessel, to support Tuvalu's law enforcement activities.[235]Allankay will accommodate officers from theTuvalu Police Force, who have the authority to board, inspect, and arrest fishing vessels engaged in IUU activity in Tuvalu's EEZ.[235]
Male homosexuality is illegal in Tuvalu.[237]Crime in Tuvalu is not a significant social problem due to an effective criminal justice system, also due to the influence of theFalekaupule (the traditional assembly of elders of each island) and the central role ofreligious institutions in the Tuvaluan community.
Tuvalu consists of sixatolls and threereef islands, each constituting a district of the country. The smallest, Niulakita, is administered as part of Niutao. The districts, their island counts, and their populations as of the 2022 census are as follows:
Each island has its own high-chief (ulu-aliki), several sub-chiefs (alikis), and a community council (Falekaupule). TheFalekaupule, also known aste sina o fenua (grey-hairs of the land), is the traditional assembly of elders.
The ulu-aliki and aliki exercise informal authority at the local level, with the former chosen on the basis of ancestry. Since the passage of the Falekaupule Act in 1997,[238] the powers and functions of theFalekaupule are shared with thepule o kaupule, a village president elected on each atoll.[239]
Tuvalu hasISO 3166-2 codes defined for one town council (Funafuti) and seven island councils. Niulakita, which now has its own island council, is not listed, as it is administered as part of Niutao.
Population distribution of Tuvalu by age group (2014)
The population at the 2002 census was 9,561,[240] and the population at the 2017 census was 10,645.[241][242] The most recent evaluation in 2020 puts the population at 11,342.[243] The population of Tuvalu is primarily ofPolynesian ethnicity, with approximately 5.6% of the population beingMicronesians speakingGilbertese, especially onNui.[241]
Life expectancy forwomen in Tuvalu is 70.2 years and 65.6 years for men (2018 est.).[244] The country's population growth rate is 0.86% (2018 est.).[244] The net migration rate is estimated at −6.6 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2018 est.).[244] The threat ofglobal warming in Tuvalu is not yet a dominant motivation for migration as Tuvaluans appear to prefer to continue living on the islands for reasons of lifestyle, culture and identity.[245]
From 1947 to 1983, a number of Tuvaluans from Vaitupu migrated toKioa, an island in Fiji.[246] The settlers from Tuvalu were granted Fijian citizenship in 2005. In recent years, New Zealand and Australia have been the primary destinations for migration or seasonal work.
In 2014, attention was drawn to an appeal to the New Zealand Immigration and Protection Tribunal against the deportation of a Tuvaluan family on the basis that they were "climate change refugees", who would suffer hardship resulting from theenvironmental degradation of Tuvalu.[247] However, the subsequent grant of residence permits to the family was made on grounds unrelated to the refugee claim.[248] The family was successful in their appeal because, under the relevant immigration legislation, there were "exceptional circumstances of a humanitarian nature" that justified the grant of resident permits, for the family was integrated into New Zealand society with a sizeable extended family that had effectively relocated to New Zealand.[248] Indeed, in 2013 a claim of aKiribati man of being a"climate change refugee" under theConvention relating to the Status of Refugees (1951) was determined by the New Zealand High Court to be untenable, as there was no persecution or serious harm related to any of the five stipulated Refugee Convention grounds.[249] Permanent migration to Australia and New Zealand, such as for family reunification, requires compliance with the immigration legislation of those countries.[250]
New Zealand announced thePacific Access Category in 2001, which provided an annual quota of 75 work permits for Tuvaluans.[251] The applicants register for the Pacific Access Category (PAC) ballots; the primary criterion is that the principal applicant must have a job offer from a New Zealand employer.[252] Tuvaluans also have access to seasonal employment in the horticulture and viticulture industries in New Zealand under theRecognised Seasonal Employer (RSE) Work Policy introduced in 2007 allowing for employment of up to 5,000 workers from Tuvalu and other Pacific islands.[253] Tuvaluans can participate in the AustralianPacific Seasonal Worker Program, which allows Pacific Islanders to obtain seasonal employment in the Australian agriculture industry, in particular, cotton and cane operations; fishing industry, in particular aquaculture; and with accommodation providers in the tourism industry.[254]
TheTuvaluan language and English are the national languages of Tuvalu. Tuvaluan is of the Ellicean group ofPolynesian languages, distantly related to all other Polynesian languages such asHawaiian,Māori,Tahitian,Rapa Nui,Samoan andTongan.[255] It is most closely related to the languages spoken on thePolynesian outliers in Micronesia and northern and centralMelanesia. The Tuvaluan language has borrowed from the Samoan language, as a consequence of Christian missionaries in the late 19th and early 20th centuries being predominantly Samoan.[40][255]
TheTuvaluan language is spoken by virtually everyone, while aMicronesian language very similar toGilbertese is spoken onNui.[255][256] English is also an official language but is not spoken in daily use. Parliament and official functions are conducted in the Tuvaluan language.
Fetu Ao Lima (Morning Star Church), Congregational Christian Church of Tuvalu
TheCongregational Christian Church of Tuvalu, which is part of theCalvinist tradition, is thestate church of Tuvalu;[262] although in practice this merely entitles it to "the privilege of performing special services on major national events".[263] Its adherents comprise about 86% of the 10,632 (2022 census) inhabitants of thearchipelago.[262][1] TheConstitution of Tuvalu guarantees freedom of religion, including the freedom to practice, the freedom to change religion, the right not to receive religious instruction at school or to attend religious ceremonies at school, and the right not to "take an oath or make an affirmation that is contrary to his religion or belief".[264]
TheBaháʼí Faith is the largest minority religion and the largest non-Christian religion in Tuvalu. It constitutes 1% of the population.[1] The Baháʼís are present on Nanumea,[265] and Funafuti.[266] TheAhmadiyya Muslim Community consists of about 50 members (0.4% of the population).[267]
The introduction of Christianity ended the worship of ancestral spirits and other deities (animism),[268] along with the power of thevaka-atua (the priests of the old religions).[269] Laumua Kofe describes the objects of worship as varying from island to island, although ancestor worship was described by the Rev. Samuel James Whitmee in 1870 as being common practice.[270]
ThePrincess Margaret Hospital on Funafuti is the only hospital in Tuvalu and the primary provider of medical services.
Since the late 20th century, the biggest health problems in Tuvalu have been obesity-related. The leading cause of death has beenheart disease,[271] which is closely followed bydiabetes[272] andhigh blood pressure.[271] In 2016 the majority of deaths resulted from cardiac diseases, with diabetes mellitus, hypertension, obesity, and cerebral-vascular disease among the other causes of death.[273]
Fetuvalu offers theCambridge syllabus. Motufoua offers the Fiji Junior Certificate (FJC) at year 10, Tuvaluan Certificate at Year 11 and the Pacific Senior Secondary Certificate (PSSC) at Year 12, which is set by SPBEA, theFiji-basedexam board.[276] Sixth form students who pass their PSSC go on to the Augmented Foundation Programme, funded by the Tuvalu government. This program is required for tertiary education programmes outside of Tuvalu and is available at theUniversity of the South Pacific (USP) Extension Centre in Funafuti.[277]
Required attendance at school is 10 years for males and 11 years for females (2001).[244] The adultliteracy rate is 99.0% (2002).[278] In 2010, there were 1,918 students who were taught by 109 teachers (98 certified and 11 uncertified). The teacher-pupil ratio for primary schools in Tuvalu is around 1:18 for all schools with the exception of Nauti School, which has a ratio of 1:27. Nauti School on Funafuti is the largest primary school in Tuvalu with more than 900 students (45 per cent of the total primary school enrolment). The pupil-teacher ratio for Tuvalu is low compared to the entire Pacific region (ratio of 1:29).[279]
Community Training Centres (CTCs) have been established within the primary schools on each atoll. They providevocational training to students who do not progress beyond Class 8 because they failed the entry qualifications for secondary education. The CTCs offer training in basic carpentry, gardening and farming,sewing and cooking. At the end of their studies the graduates can apply to continue studies either at Motufoua Secondary School or theTuvalu Maritime Training Institute (TMTI). Adults can also attend courses at the CTCs.[280]
The Tuvaluan Employment Ordinance of 1966 sets theminimum age for paid employment at 14 years and prohibits children under the age of 15 from performing hazardous work.[282]
The traditional buildings of Tuvalu used plants and trees from the native broadleaf forest,[283] including timber frompouka (Hernandia peltata);ngia oringia bush (Pemphis acidula);miro (Thespesia populnea);Tonga (Rhizophora mucronata);fau orfo fafini, or woman's fibre tree (Hibiscus tiliaceus).[283] Fibre is fromcoconut;ferra, native fig (Ficus aspem);fala, screw pine orPandanus.[283] The buildings were constructed without nails, lashed together with plaitedsennit rope handmade from dried coconut fibre.[284]
Following contact with Europeans, iron products were used including nails and corrugated roofing material. Modern buildings in Tuvalu are constructed from imported building materials, including imported timber and concrete.[284]
Interior of a maneapa on Funafuti, Tuvalu
Church and community buildings (maneapa) are usually coated with white paint that is known aslase, which is made by burning a large amount of dead coral with firewood. The whitish powder that is the result is mixed with water and painted on the buildings.[285]
The women of Tuvalu usecowrie and other shells in traditionalhandicrafts.[286] The artistic traditions of Tuvalu have traditionally been expressed in the design of clothing and traditional handicrafts such as the decoration ofmats andfans.[286]Crochet (kolose) is one of the art forms practised by Tuvaluan women.[287] The design of women's skirts (titi), tops (teuga saka),headbands,armbands, andwristbands, which continue to be used in performances of the traditional dance songs of Tuvalu, represents contemporary Tuvaluan art and design.[288] Thematerial culture of Tuvalu uses traditional design elements in artefacts used in everyday life such as the design ofcanoes andfish hooks made from traditional materials.[289][290]
In 2015, an exhibition was held on Funafuti of the art of Tuvalu, with works that addressedclimate change through the eyes of artists and the display ofKope ote olaga (possessions of life), a display of the various artefacts of Tuvalu culture.[291]
The traditional music of Tuvalu consists of a number of dances, includingfakaseasea,fakanau andfatele.[292] Thefatele, in its modern form, is performed at community events and to celebrate leaders and other prominent individuals, such as the visit of theDuke andDuchess of Cambridge in September 2012.[293][294] The Tuvaluan style can be described "as a musical microcosm of Polynesia, where contemporary and older styles co-exist".[292]
Thecuisine of Tuvalu is based on thestaple ofcoconut and the many species of fish found in the ocean and lagoons of the atolls. Desserts made on the islands include coconut andcoconut milk, rather than animal milk. The traditional foods eaten in Tuvalu arepulaka,taro, bananas,breadfruit[295] and coconut.[296] Tuvaluans also eat seafood, includingcoconut crab and fish from the lagoon and ocean.[129] Another traditional food source isseabirds (taketake orblack noddy andakiaki orwhite tern), with pork being eaten mostly atfateles (or parties with dancing to celebrate events).[239]
Pulaka is the main source forcarbohydrates. Seafood providesprotein. Bananas and breadfruit are supplemental crops. Coconut is used for its juice, to make other beverages (such astoddy) and to improve the taste of some dishes.[239]
The traditional community system still survives to a large extent on Tuvalu. Each family has its own task, orsalanga, to perform for the community, such as fishing,house building or defence. The skills of a family are passed on from parents to children.
Most islands have their ownfusi, community-owned shops similar to convenience stores, wherecanned foods and bags of rice can be purchased. Goods are cheaper, and fusis give better prices for their own produce.[239]
Another important building is thefalekaupule ormaneapa, the traditional islandmeeting hall,[301] where important matters are discussed and which is also used for wedding celebrations and community activities such as afatele involving music, singing and dancing.[239]Falekaupule is also used as the name of the council of elders – the traditional decision-making body on each island. Under the Falekaupule Act,Falekaupule means "traditional assembly in each island ... composed in accordance with the Aganu of each island".Aganu means traditional customs and culture.[301]
Historical records are held by theTuvalu National Library and Archives. The creation of a Tuvalu National Cultural Centre and Museum was discussed in the government's strategic plan for 2018–24.[302][303]
Paopao (from theSamoan language, meaning a small fishing-canoe made from a single log), is the traditional single-outrigger canoe of Tuvalu, of which the largest could carry four to six adults. The variations of single-outrigger canoes that had been developed on Vaitupu and Nanumea were reef-type or paddled canoes; that is, they were designed for carrying over the reef and being paddled, rather than being sailed.[289] Outrigger canoes fromNui were constructed with an indirect type of outrigger attachment and the hull is double-ended, with no distinct bow and stern. These canoes were designed to be sailed over the Nui lagoon.[304] The booms of the outrigger are longer than those found in other designs of canoes from the other islands. This made the Nui canoe more stable when used with a sail than the other designs.[304]
A traditional sport played in Tuvalu iskilikiti,[305] which is similar tocricket.[306] A popular sport specific to Tuvalu isTe ano (The ball), which is played with two round balls of 12 cm (5 in) diameter.[239]Te ano is a traditional game that is similar tovolleyball, in which the two hard balls made frompandanus leaves are volleyed at great speed with the team members trying to stop the ball hitting the ground.[307] Traditional sports in the late 19th century were foot racing,lance throwing,quarterstaff fencing andwrestling, although the Christian missionaries disapproved of these activities.[308]
A major sporting event is the "Independence Day Sports Festival" held annually on 1 October. The most important sports event within the country is arguably theTuvalu Games, which are held yearly since 2008. Tuvalu first participated in the Pacific Games in 1978 and in theCommonwealth Games in 1998, when a weightlifter attended the games held at Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.[315] Two table tennis players attended the 2002 Commonwealth Games in Manchester, England;[315] Tuvalu entered competitors in shooting, table tennis and weightlifting at the2006 Commonwealth Games in Melbourne, Australia;[315] three athletes participated in the2010 Commonwealth Games in Delhi, India, entering the discus, shot put and weightlifting events;[315] and a team of 3 weightlifters and 2 table tennis players attended the2014 Commonwealth Games in Glasgow. Tuvaluan athletes have also participated in the men's and women's100 metres sprint at theWorld Championships in Athletics from 2009.
From 1996 to 2002, Tuvalu was one of the best-performing Pacific Island economies and achieved an average real gross domestic product (GDP) growth rate of 5.6% per annum. Economic growth slowed after 2002, with GDP growth of 1.5% in 2008. Tuvalu was exposed to rapid rises in world prices of fuel and food in 2008, with the level of inflation peaking at 13.4%.[278] Tuvalu has the smallest total GDP of any sovereign state in the world.[322]Tuvalu joined theInternational Monetary Fund (IMF) on 24 June 2010.[323]
In 2023, the IMF Article IV consultation with Tuvalu concluded that a successful vaccination strategy allowed Tuvalu to lift coronavirus disease (COVID) containment measures at the end of 2022. However, the economic cost of the pandemic was significant, with real gross domestic product growth falling, and an increase in the rate of inflation.[324] The increase in inflation in 2022 was due to the rapid rise in the cost of food resulting from a drought that affected food production and from rising global food prices, following Russia's invasion of Ukraine (food imports represent 19 percent of Tuvalu's GDP, while agriculture makes up for only 10 percent of GDP).[324]
The growth of GDP of Tuvalu was at a high point in 2019. The global pandemic resulted in a retraction in the level of GDP (-3.7% in 2020, -0.5% in 2021, and -2.3% in 2022). Tuvalu experienced a 7.9% GDP growth in 2023, however the growth was estimated to moderate to 3.3 percent in 2024. An important factor in the moderation in growth is an expected decline in fishing revenue.[325]In 2025, GDP growth was estimated to further moderate to 3 percent of GDP. In 2026, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) projects GDP growth to ease further to 2.1 percent.[326] This trend towards more modest and sustainable growth levels reflects underlying structural challenges in the economy of Tuvalu, including sluggish productivity, rising emigration, and growing exposure to climate-related risks, and also Tuvalu’s exposure to global economic conditions.[327][325] Tuvalu’s economy is small and heavily reliant on a few sectors, including fishing, government services, and remittances from Tuvaluans participated in regional employment programmes in Australia and New Zealand. The National Bank of Tuvalu calculated remittances from New Zealand and Australia rose to 7% of GDP between 2021 and 2023.[327]
The government is the primary provider of medical services throughPrincess Margaret Hospital on Funafuti, which operates health clinics on the other islands. Banking services are provided by theNational Bank of Tuvalu. Public sector workers make up about 65% of those formally employed. Remittances from Tuvaluans living in Australia and New Zealand, and remittances from Tuvaluan sailors employed on overseas ships are important sources of income for Tuvaluans.[328] Approximately 15% of adult males work as seamen on foreign-flagged merchant ships.Agriculture in Tuvalu is focused oncoconut trees and growingpulaka in large pits of composted soil below the water table. Tuvaluans are otherwise involved in traditional subsistence agriculture and fishing.
Tuvaluans are well known for their seafaring skills, with theTuvalu Maritime Training Institute onAmatukumotu (island), Funafuti, providing training to approximately 120 marine cadets each year so that they have the skills necessary for employment as seafarers on merchant shipping. TheTuvalu Overseas Seamen's Union (TOSU) is the only registered trade union in Tuvalu. It represents workers on foreign ships. The Asian Development Bank (ADB) estimates that 800 Tuvaluan men are trained, certified and active as seafarers. The ADB estimates that, at any one time, about 15% of the adult male population works abroad as seafarers.[329] Job opportunities also exist as observers on tuna boats where the role is to monitor compliance with the boat's tuna fishing licence.[330]
Government revenues largely come from sales of fishing licences, income from theTuvalu Trust Fund, and from the lease of its ".tv" internetTop Level Domain (TLD). Tuvalu began deriving revenue from the commercialisation of its ".tv" internet domain name,[331] which was managed byVerisign until 2021.[332][333] In 2023, an agreement between the government of Tuvalu and theGoDaddy company, outsourced the marketing, sales, promotion and branding of the.tv domain to theTuvalu Telecommunications Corporation, which established a .tv unit.[334] Tuvalu also generates income from postage stamps by theTuvalu Philatelic Bureau, and from theTuvalu Ship Registry.
TheTuvalu Trust Fund (TTF) was established in 1987 by the United Kingdom, Australia and New Zealand.[39] The TTF is a sovereign wealth fund that is owned by Tuvalu but is administered by an international board and the government of Tuvalu. When the performance of the TTF exceeds its operating target each year, excess funds are transferred to the Consolidated Investment Fund (CIF), and can be freely drawn upon by the Tuvaluan government to finance budgetary expenditures.[335] In 2022, the value of the Tuvalu Trust Fund is approximately $190 million.[335] In 2021 the market value of the TTF rose by 12 percent to its highest level on record (261 percent of GDP). However, the volatility in global equity markets in 2022 resulted in the TTF's value falling by 7 percent as compared to the end of 2021.[335]
Financial support to Tuvalu is also provided by Japan, South Korea and theEuropean Union. Australia and New Zealand continue to contribute capital to the TTF, and provide other forms of development assistance.[328][39]
TheU.S. government is also a major revenue source for Tuvalu. In 1999, the payment from the South Pacific Tuna Treaty (SPTT) was about $9 million, with the value increasing in the following years. In May 2013, representatives from the United States and the Pacific Islands countries agreed to sign interim arrangement documents to extend the Multilateral Fisheries Treaty (which encompasses the South Pacific Tuna Treaty) for 18 months.[336]
The United Nations designates Tuvalu as aleast developed country (LDC) because of its limited potential for economic development, absence of exploitable resources and its small size and vulnerability to external economic and environmental shocks.[337] Tuvalu participates in the Enhanced Integrated Framework for Trade-Related Technical Assistance to Least Developed Countries (EIF), which was established in October 1997 under the auspices of theWorld Trade Organisation.[338] In 2013, Tuvalu deferred its graduation fromleast developed country (LDC) status to adeveloping country to 2015.Enele Sopoaga, the prime minister in 2013, said that this deferral was necessary to maintain access by Tuvalu to the funds provided by the United Nations'sNational Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA), as "Once Tuvalu graduates to a developed country, it will not be considered for funding assistance forclimate change adaptation programmes like NAPA, which only goes to LDCs". Tuvalu had met targets so that Tuvalu was to graduate from LDC status. Enele Sopoaga wanted the United Nations to reconsider its criteria for graduation from LDC status as not enough weight is given to the environmental plight of small island states like Tuvalu in the application of theEnvironmental Vulnerability Index (EVI).[339]
There are limited transport services in Tuvalu. There are about eight kilometres (5 miles) of roads.[244] The streets of Funafuti were paved in mid-2002, but other roads are unpaved. Tuvalu does not have any railways.
Funafuti is the only port, but there is a deep-water berth in the lagoon atNukufetau. Landing passengers and cargo on some of the islands is difficult as the reef islands do not have a lagoon that shipping can enter or the atoll's lagoon does not have navigable channels. Landing on these islands involves passengers and cargo being transferred from ships to workboats for delivery to landing points on the islands. The Outer Island Maritime Infrastructure Project was developed by the government of Tuvalu and funded by the Asian Development Bank (ADB) and the Australian Infrastructure Financing Facility for the Pacific (AIFFP).[340][341][342][343][344] The shipping infrastructure on Nukulaelae, Nanumaga, Nui and Niutao was damaged by TropicalCyclone Pam in March 2015.[342][345]Nukulaelae is anatoll, with access to the Nukulaelae lagoon involves navigating a passage through the fringing reef into a central channel or passage.Niutao andNanumanga arereef islands, so that access to these islands involves transferring passengers and cargo from a ship standing off the island, using work boats to land on the fringing reef that surrounds each island. The Outer Island Maritime Infrastructure Project also involved constructing a small boat harbour construction on Nui and Nukulaelae,[342][346] and rehabilitating and expanding the landing facilities on Nanumaga and Niutao to construct workboat harbours.[347] Hall Contracting Pty Ltd was contracted by the Government of Tuvalu to carrying out the work,[348] which has carried out other infrastructure projects in Tuvalu, including onNanumea, which involved the construction of a 1.3-kilometre-long berm top barrier, a 170-metre-long Seabee seawall and seven reef-top barriers, and also work to upgrade facilities at the Port of Funafuti.
Themerchant marine fleet consists of two passenger/cargo ships,Nivaga III andManu Sina, both of which were donated by Japan. They provide round-trip visits to the outer islands every three or four weeks, and travel betweenSuva, Fiji and Funafuti three or four times a year.Manu Sina (IMO: 1024182) is a passenger/general cargo ship with a capacity for 200 passengers. Her length overall (LOA) is 67 meters, width is 13 meters, and Gross Tonnage of 1,888. The launching ceremony was held in Saiki, Oita (Japan) in July 2024 in a ship yard of Honda Heavy Industries Co. Ltd.[349][350] The construction of the vessel was funded by the Asian Development Bank (ADB), the Government of Tuvalu.[349] The ship arrived at Funafuti harbour on 2 April 2025, after a 13 day maiden voyage.[351] The new ship replaces the aging ship, theManu Folau.[349].[325]
In 2015Nivaga III replacedNivaga II, which had been in service in Tuvalu from 1989.[352][353]
In 2020, the government of Tuvalu purchased a landing barge, which is intended to transport ofdangerous goods and building material from the capital to the outer islands. The barge was namedMoeiteava. The government of Taiwan provided financial assistance.[354]
The Tuvalu Fisheries Department operates two vessels for carrying out its activities within the country's exclusive economic zone (EEZ) and outer islands. These are the 18-metreManaui and 32-metreTala Moana. The vessels are used for fisheries research, deploying fish aggregating devices (FADs), visiting outer islands for monitoring and consultations, including to implement Tuvalu'sNational Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA) toaddress climate change.[355] TheManaui was procured through the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) in 1989 and is nearing the end of its life.[356] In 2015, theUnited Nations Development Program (UNDP) provided assistance to acquireTala Moana;[357] which is also used for Monitoring Control and Surveillance (MCS) patrols.[358]Tala Moana is a steel monohull oil rig supply vessel that is equipped with facilities for a team of about 15 people.[359]
The only international airport in Tuvalu isFunafuti International Airport.Fiji Airways operates services to Funafuti International Airport.[360] Fiji Airways operates services three times a week (Tuesday, Thursday and Saturday) betweenSuva and Funafuti withATR 72–600 aircraft, which has a capacity of 72 passengers. Beginning 18 March 2024, flights also operate on Mondays betweenNadi and Funafuti.[361]
Due to the country's remoteness, tourism is not significant. Visitors totalled 1,684 in 2010: 65% were on business, development officials or technical consultants, 20% were tourists (360 people), and 11% were expatriates returning to visit family.[189] In 2016, the number of visitors had increased to 2,000.[362]
The main island of Funafuti is the focus of travellers, since the only airport in Tuvalu is theFunafuti International Airport and Funafuti is the only island that has hotel facilities.[363] However, there are no tour guides, tour operators or organised activities and no cruise ships visit.[364]Ecotourism is a motivation of travellers to Tuvalu. TheFunafuti Conservation Area consists of 12.74 square miles (33.00 square kilometres) of ocean, reef, lagoon, channel and six uninhabited islets.
The outer atolls can be visited on the two passenger-cargo ships,Nivaga III andManu Sina, which provide round-trip visits to the outer islands every three or four weeks. There is guesthouse accommodation on many of the outer islands.
TheTuvalu Media Department of the Government of Tuvalu operatesRadio Tuvalu which broadcasts from Funafuti.[261] In 2011, the Japanese government provided financial support to construct a newAM broadcast studio. The installation of upgraded transmission equipment allows Radio Tuvalu to be heard on all nine islands of Tuvalu. The new AM radio transmitter on Funafuti replaced the FM radio service to the outer islands and freed up satellite bandwidth for mobile services.[189]Fenui – news from Tuvalu is a free digital publication of the Tuvalu Media Department that is emailed to subscribers and operates a Facebook page, which publishes news about government activities and news about Tuvaluan events.
The Tuvalu Vaka subsea cable was connected in 2025, together with the introduction of Starlink community gateways, they transform digital connectivity and expand access to essential services by providing continuous access to telecommunication services. The roll out of Fibre to the Premises (FTTP) in Funafuti, also expanded access to high-speed internet.[365] The Starlink Community Gateway was funded under a World Bank ICT project, and provides redundancy with the VAKA cable.[365]
In July 2020, the Government of Tuvalu signed a five-year agreement withKacific Broadband Satellites to supply Tuvalu withinternet via sixty 1.2 metreVSAT satellite receivers.[366] The agreement provided a combineddata transfer capacity of 400 to 600 Mbit/s to schools, medical clinics, government agencies, small businesses, and 40 outdoorWi-Fi hotspots, as well as Tuvaluan interisland ferries via three maritime antennae.[366] AKa band antenna was installed to provide the island's mobile phone network withtrunking andbackhaul services.[366] By February 2022, Kacific and Agility Beyond Space (ABS) satellites provided the island with a combined capacity of 510 Mbit/s.[367]
The average download of data per device is about 9 GB/user/month, with 95% of devices in use supporting 4G LTE service.[368] Also, Tuvalu has 5,915 active broadband users (the largest base of users is on Funafuti), with dedicated satellite and hotspot users on the outer islands, each of which having three to five hotspots.[368]
The Disappearing of Tuvalu: Trouble in Paradise (2004) by Christopher Horner and Gilliane Le Gallic.[370]
Paradise Drowned: Tuvalu, the Disappearing Nation (2004) Written and produced by Wayne Tourell. Directed by Mike O'Connor, Savana Jones-Middleton and Wayne Tourell.[371]
Going Under (2004) by Franny Armstrong, Spanner Films.[116]
Before the Flood: Tuvalu (2005) by Paul Lindsay (Storyville/BBC Four).[116]
Time and Tide (2005) by Julie Bayer and Josh Salzman, Wavecrest Films.[372]
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