The rhizomes can be used fresh, but they are often boiled in water and dried, after which they are ground into a deep orange-yellow shelf-stable spice powder commonly used as acoloring and flavoring agent in manyAsian cuisines, especially forcurries (curry powder). Turmeric powder has a warm, bitter,black pepper-like flavor and earthy,mustard-likearoma.[7]
The greatest diversity ofCurcuma species by number alone is inIndia, at around 40 to 45 species.Thailand has a comparable 30 to 40 species. Other countries in tropical Asia also have numerous wild species ofCurcuma. Recent studies have also shown that the taxonomy ofC. longa is problematic, with only the specimens from South India being identifiable asC. longa. The phylogeny, relationships, intraspecific and interspecific variation, and even identity of other species and cultivars in other parts of the world still need to be established and validated. Various species currently utilized and sold as "turmeric" in other parts of Asia have been shown to belong to several physically similar taxa, with overlapping local names.[12][13]
In India, it spread with Hinduism and Buddhism, as the yellow dye is used to color the robes of monks and priests.[17]
InIsland Southeast Asia, there is linguistic and circumstantial evidence of the ancient use of turmeric among theAustronesian peoples soon after dispersal fromTaiwan (startingc. 3000 BCE), before contact with India. InIndonesia and thePhilippines, turmeric was used for food, dyeing textiles, medicine, as well as body painting. It was commonly an important ingredient in various animistic rituals. Kikusawa and Reid (2007) have concluded that *kunij, the oldest reconstructedProto-Malayo-Polynesian form for "turmeric" in the Austronesian languages, is primarily associated with the importance of its use as a dye. Other members of the genusCurcuma native to Southeast Asia (likeCurcuma zedoaria) were also used for food and spice, but not as dyes.[15]
Turmeric (along withCurcuma zedoaria) was also spread with theLapita people of theAustronesian expansion intoOceania. Turmeric can only be propagated with rhizomes, thus its pre-contact distribution into thePacific Islands can only be via human introduction. The populations inMicronesia,Island Melanesia, andPolynesia (including as far asHawaii andEaster Island) use turmeric widely for both food and dye before European contact.[15][16][17] InMicronesia, it was an important trade item in thesawei maritime exchange betweenYap and furtheratolls in theCarolines, where it couldn't grow. In some smaller islands, the dye was extracted from the leaves, since the rhizomes remained too small in sandy soils. It was also carried by the Austronesian migrations toMadagascar.[15]
Turmeric was found inFarmana, dating to between 2600 and 2200 BCE, and in a merchant's tomb inMegiddo, Israel, dating from the second millennium BCE.[18] It was noted as a dye plant in theAssyrians' Cuneiform medical texts fromAshurbanipal's library at Nineveh from 7th century BCE.[17] InMedieval Europe, turmeric was called "Indiansaffron."[17]
The name possibly derives fromMiddle English or Early Modern English asturmeryte ortarmaret. It may be ofLatin origin,terra merita ("deserved earth").[19] The Latin specific epithetlonga means long.[20]
Turmeric is aperennialherbaceous plant that reaches up to 1 m (3 ft 3 in) tall.[1] It has highly branched, yellow to orange, cylindrical, aromatic rhizomes.[1]
The leaves arealternate and arranged in two rows. They are divided into leaf sheath,petiole, and leaf blade.[1] From the leaf sheaths, a false stem is formed. The petiole is 50 to 115 cm (20–45 in) long. The simple leaf blades are usually 76 to 115 cm (30–45 in) long and rarely up to 230 cm (7 ft 7 in). They have a width of 38 to 45 cm (15 to17+1⁄2 in) and are oblong to elliptical, narrowing at the tip.[1]
At the top of the inflorescence, stem bracts are present on which no flowers occur; these are white to green and sometimes tinged reddish-purple, and the upper ends are tapered.[21]
Thehermaphrodite flowers arezygomorphic and threefold. The threesepals are0.8 to 1.2 cm (3⁄8 to1⁄2 in) long, fused, and white, and have fluffy hairs; the threecalyx teeth are unequal. The three bright-yellowpetals are fused into acorolla tube up to3 cm (1+1⁄4 in) long. The three corolla lobes have a length of1.0 to 1.5 cm (3⁄8–5⁄8 in) and are triangular with soft-spiny upper ends. While the average corolla lobe is larger than the two lateral, only the medianstamen of the inner circle is fertile. The dust bag is spurred at its base. All other stamens are converted tostaminodes. The outer staminodes are shorter than thelabellum. The labellum is yellowish, with a yellow ribbon in its center and it isobovate, with a length from1.2 to 2.0 cm (1⁄2 to3⁄4 in). Threecarpels are under a constant, trilobed ovary adherent, which is sparsely hairy. The fruit capsule opens with three compartments.[22][23]
InEast Asia, the flowering time is usually in August. Terminally on the false stem is aninflorescence stem,12 to 20 cm (4+1⁄2 to 8 in) long, containing many flowers. Thebracts are light green and ovate to oblong with a blunt upper end with a length of 3 to 5 cm (1 to 2 in).[21]
Curcuma domestica Valeton, a drawing by A. Bernecker around 1860
Turmeric is one of the key ingredients in many Asian dishes, imparting a mustard-like, earthy aroma and pungent, slightly bitter flavor to foods.[7] It is used mostly in savory dishes, but also is used in some sweet dishes, such as the Lebanese cakesfouf. In India, turmeric leaf is used to prepare special sweet dishes,patoleo, by layering rice flour andcoconut-jaggery mixture on the leaf, then closing and steaming it in a special utensil (chondrõ).[28] Most turmeric is used in the form ofrhizome powder to impart a golden yellow color.[7] It is used in many products such as canned beverages, baked products, dairy products, ice cream, yogurt, yellow cakes, orange juice, biscuits, popcorn, cereals and sauces. It is a principal ingredient in curry powders.[7][29] Although typically used in its dried, powdered form, turmeric also is used fresh, like ginger.[29]
Turmeric is used widely as a spice in South Asian and Middle Eastern cooking. VariousIraniankhoresh recipes begin with onionscaramelized in oil and turmeric. TheMoroccan spice mixras el hanout typically includes turmeric. In South Africa, turmeric is used to give boiled white rice a golden color, known asgeelrys (yellow rice) traditionally served withbobotie. InVietnamese cuisine, turmeric powder is used to color and enhance the flavors of certain dishes, such asbánh xèo,bánh khọt, andmì Quảng. The stapleCambodian curry paste,kroeung, used in many dishes, includingfish amok, typically contains fresh turmeric. InIndonesia, turmeric leaves are used forMinang orPadang curry base ofSumatra, such asrendang,sate padang, and many other varieties. In thePhilippines, turmeric is used in the preparation and cooking ofkuning,satti, and some variants ofadobo. InThailand, fresh turmeric rhizomes are used widely in many dishes, in particular in the southernThai cuisine, such as yellow curry and turmeric soup. Turmeric is used in a hot drink called "turmericlatte" or "golden milk" that is made with milk, frequentlycoconut milk.[30] The turmeric milk drink known ashaldī dūdh (haldī [हलदी] means turmeric inHindi) is a traditional Indian recipe. Sold in the US and UK, the drink known as "golden milk" uses nondairy milk and sweetener, and sometimes black pepper after the traditional recipe (which may also use ghee).[30]
In combination withannatto (E160b), turmeric has been used to color numerous food products.[6][29] Turmeric is used to give a yellow color to some preparedmustards, canned chickenbroths, and other foods—often as a much cheaper replacement forsaffron.[29][31]
Khandoba's newer temple inJejuri, where devotees shower turmeric powder (bhandara) on each other
In 2019, theEuropean Medicines Agency concluded that turmeric herbal teas, or other forms taken by mouth, on the basis of their long-standing traditional use, could be used to relieve mild digestive problems, such as feelings of fullness andflatulence.[32]
Turmeric grows wild in the forests of South and Southeast Asia, where it is collected for use in classical Indian medicine (Siddha or Ayurveda).[8] In Eastern India, the plant is used as one of the nine components ofnabapatrika along with youngplantain or banana plant,taro leaves,barley (jayanti),wood apple (bilva),pomegranate (darimba),Saraca indica,manaka (Arum), ormanakochu, and rice paddy. The Haldi ceremony calledgaye holud in Bengal (literally "yellow on the body") is a ceremony observed during wedding celebrations of people of Indian culture all throughout the Indian subcontinent.[33]
InTamil Nadu andAndhra Pradesh, as a part of the Tamil–Telugu marriage ritual, a dried turmeric tuber tied with a string is used to create aThali necklace. In western and coastal India, during weddings of theMarathi andKonkani people,KannadaBrahmins, turmeric tubers are tied with strings by the couple to their wrists during a ceremony,Kankana Bandhana.[34] In many Hindu communities, turmeric paste is applied to the bride and groom as part of pre-wedding festivities known as the haldi ceremony.[35]
Turmeric makes a poor fabricdye, as it is notlight fast, but is commonly used in Indian clothing, such assaris andBuddhist monks' robes.[3] During the lateEdo period (1603–1867), turmeric was used to dilute or substitute more expensivesafflower dyestuff in the production ofbeni itajime shibori.[36]: 1 Friedrich Ratzel reported inThe History of Mankind during 1896, that in Micronesia, turmeric powder was applied for embellishment of body, clothing, utensils, and ceremonial uses.[37]Native Hawaiians who introduced it toHawaii (Hawaiian:ʻōlena) make a bright yellow dye out of it.[38]
Turmeric dispersed in water is yellow under acid and red under alkaline conditions
Turmeric paper, also called curcuma paper or in German literaturecurcumapapier, is paper steeped in atincture of turmeric and allowed to dry. It is used inchemical analysis as apH indicator.[39] The paper is yellow in acidic andneutral solutions and turns brown to reddish-brown in alkaline solutions, with transition between pH of 7.4 and 9.2.[40]
As turmeric and other spices are commonly sold by weight, the potential exists for powders of toxic, cheaper agents with a similar color to be added, such aslead(II,IV) oxide ("red lead"). These additives give turmeric an orange-red color instead of its native gold-yellow, and such conditions led the USFood and Drug Administration (FDA) to issue import alerts from 2013 to 2019 on turmeric originating inIndia andBangladesh.[41] Imported into the United States in 2014 were approximately 5.4 million kilograms (12 million pounds) of turmeric, some of which was used forfood coloring,traditional medicine, ordietary supplement.[41] Lead detection in turmeric products led torecalls across the United States, Canada, Japan, Korea, and the United Kingdom through 2016.[41]
Lead chromate, a bright yellow chemical compound, was found as an adulterant of turmeric in Bangladesh, where turmeric is used commonly in foods and the contamination levels were up to 500 times higher than the national limit.[42] Researchers identified a chain of sources adulterating the turmeric with lead chromate: from farmers to merchants selling low-grade turmeric roots to "polishers" who added lead chromate for yellow color enhancement, towholesalers for market distribution, all unaware of the potential consequences of lead toxicity.[42]
Turmeric and curcumin have been studied in various, low-qualityclinical trials, with no good evidence of an anti-disease effect or health benefit.[8][44][45][46] There is no scientific evidence that curcumin reducesinflammation, as of 2019[update].[8][46] There is weak evidence that turmeric extracts may relieve symptoms of kneeosteoarthritis[47] and lower muscle pain following physical exercise.[48]
Turmeric supplements are associated with rare but potentially serious liver injuries, particularly ingenetically susceptible individuals.[11]
^"Turmeric",LiverTox: Clinical and Research Information on Drug-Induced Liver Injury, Bethesda (MD): National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, 2012,PMID31643876, retrieved17 June 2025
^abcdKikusawa, Ritsuko; Reid, Lawrence A. (2007)."Proto who utilized turmeric, and how?"(PDF). In Siegel, Jeff; Lynch, John; Eades, Diana (eds.).Language Description, History and Development: Linguistic indulgence in memory of Terry Crowley. John Benjamins Publishing Company. pp. 339–352.ISBN978-90-272-9294-0. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 25 November 2021. Retrieved18 January 2019.
^abMcClatchey, W. (1993). "Traditional use ofCurcuma longa (Zingiberaceae) in Rotuma".Economic Botany.47 (3):291–296.doi:10.1007/bf02862297.S2CID20513984.
^Hu, Y; Kong, W; Yang, X; et al. (2014). "GC-MS combined with chemometric techniques for the quality control and original discrimination ofCurcumae longae rhizome: Analysis of essential oils".Journal of Separation Science.37 (4):404–11.doi:10.1002/jssc.201301102.PMID24311554.
^Braga, ME; Leal, PF; Carvalho, JE; Meireles, MA (2003). "Comparison of yield, composition, and antioxidant activity of turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) extracts obtained using various techniques".Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry.51 (22):6604–11.doi:10.1021/jf0345550.PMID14558784.
^Vaughn, A. R.; Branum, A; Sivamani, RK (2016). "Effects of Turmeric (Curcuma longa) on Skin Health: A Systematic Review of the Clinical Evidence".Phytotherapy Research.30 (8):1243–64.doi:10.1002/ptr.5640.PMID27213821.S2CID46429012.
^Suhett, Lara Gomes; de Miranda Monteiro Santos, Rodrigo; Silveira, Brenda Kelly Souza; et al. (2021). "Effects of curcumin supplementation on sport and physical exercise: a systematic review".Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition.61 (6):946–958.doi:10.1080/10408398.2020.1749025.ISSN1549-7852.PMID32282223.S2CID215759520.
