Turkish occupation of northern Syria | |
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![Turkish-backed areas of the Syrian Interim Government and later of the Syrian Arab Republic (caretaker and transitional governments) in May 2025[5]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aSyrian_Civil_War_map_(ISW-CTP).svg) Turkish-backed areas of theSyrian Interim Government and later of theSyrian Arab Republic (caretaker andtransitional governments) in May 2025[5] | |
| Status | Syrian territories undermilitary occupation of Turkey. The Turkish occupation ended inAleppo Governorate after an agreement with the transitional government in Damascus.[6] |
| Capital | Azaz[7] |
| Largest city | Manbij |
| Official languages | |
| Areas of theSyrian Interim Government and later of theSyrian Arab Republic (caretaker andtransitional governments) undermilitary occupation[5] | |
| 24 August 2016 | |
| 20 January 2018 | |
| 9 October 2019 | |
| 30 November 2024 | |
| Currency | Syrian pound,Turkish lira,[2]United States dollar |
TheTurkish Armed Forces and its ally theSyrian National Army haveoccupied[9][10] areas of northernSyria since August 2016, during theSyrian civil war. Though these areas nominally acknowledge a government affiliated with theSyrian opposition, in practice they constituted a separateproto-state[11] under the dual authority ofdecentralized nativelocal councils and Turkishmilitary administration.
Turkish-controlled areas of Syria includes towns such asal-Bab,Azaz,Manbij,Jarabulus,Rajo,Tal Abyad andRas al-Ayn. The majority of these settlements had been captured from theIslamic State (IS) and theSyrian Democratic Forces (SDF) groups, both of which have been designated as terrorist organisations by theTurkish government, though the SDF is not seen this way by most of the international community, notably including the United States and European Union. Some towns, including Azaz, were also under the control of the Syrian opposition before Turkish intervention. TheSyrian Interim Government moved into the Turkish-controlled territories and began to extend partial authority there, including providing documents to Syrian citizens. These areas are referred to as "safe zones" by Turkish authorities.[12] The occupation has allegedly led tohuman rights abuses in some areas, includingethnic cleansing.[13][14][15][16]
Turkey and theSyrian opposition proposed the creation of a safe zone, that includes some regions of northern Syria as early as May 2011.[17] However the United States and the other western states were not willing to accept these plans.[18][19] After the2014 advancements of ISIL in Iraq, Turkey and United States negotiated a 'safe zone', while US accepted 'ISIL-free zone', US officials were reluctant to accept ano fly zone.[20][21]
After the attacks of ISIL inSyria, tens of thousands of Syrians fled to Turkey. In the beginning of 2015, refugees began to cross theGreece–Turkey border, escaping toEuropean countries in large numbers. The huge refugee flow resulted in reconsidering the creation of a safe zone for civilians in Syria.[22] In February 2016, Chancellor of GermanyAngela Merkel said, "In the current situation it would be helpful if there could be such an area where none of the parties are allowed to launch aerial attacks – that is to say, a kind of no-fly zone".[23]
The creation of the safe zone failed in early 2016 due to disagreements between the United States and Turkish governments, primarily on which actor is to be eliminated first. While Turkey wanted theSyrian government to be overthrown as soon as possible, the US prioritized the war against ISIL. The US also feared that theSyrian Air Force would bomb the area, which would make the idea of a safe zone impracticable. The government rejected the safe zone for being a safe haven for both civilians and rebels.[24]
The outline of the safe zone was another reason for the disagreement. According to Turkey, the safe zone should include a no fly zone, whereas the US rejected establishing a no-fly zone, which would bring a conflict with the Syrian government.[25]
Turkey designates the KurdishYPG to be a threat, due to its strong ties with thePKK. On the other hand, the US said that although they deem the PKK as a terrorist organisation, the YPG is a distinct actor, constituting one of the main allies of the US in its war against ISIL.[26]
Another debate was about the name of the safe zone. While Turkey called the zone a 'safe zone from ISIS, the Syrian regime and YPG,' the US, however, declared that they will only accept an 'ISIS-free zone'.[27]
 | This articleis missing information aboutOperation Euphrates Shield,Olive Branch andDawn of Freedom. Please expand the article to include this information. Further details may exist on thetalk page.(December 2024) |
On 30 March 2018, Turkey's presidentRecep Tayyip Erdoğan stated that Turkey had started preparations to clear northern Syria's"Ayn al-Arab" (Kobane),Ras al-Ain,Tell Abyad andAl-Hasakah regions from militants (referring to the mainly KurdishYPG forces) up to theIraqi border, adding that it would also clear militants fromIraq (this time referring to the Kurdish terrorist organisation,PKK).[28]
On 7 October 2019, thePresident Trump ordered the withdrawal of US military troops stationed on theSyria–Turkey border. This withdrawal of military support was ordered by PresidentTrump with the disapproval of the Pentagon and the US Intelligence community.[29][30] The US president ordered the withdrawal of military troops under the premise that Turkey would not invade the region being held by Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF);[29] however Turkeyattacked the SDF within two days of US military withdrawal from the region.[31]
A cross-border military operation began on 27 February 2020 by theTurkish Armed Forces (TSK) against theSyrian Armed Forces and allied militias in theIdlib Governorate of northwesternSyria[32] in response to theBalyun airstrikes which lead to the deaths of 34 Turkish military servicemen.[33][34] Turkish Defense MinisterHulusi Akar said that the purpose of the operation had been within the framework of theAstana talks, to ensure a ceasefire agreement in theSecond Northern Syria Buffer Zone and to prevent migration from Idlib towards the Turkish border. On 5 March, Turkey andRussia signed a ceasefire agreement inMoscow.[35]
In May 2022, Turkish and opposition Syrian officials said that Turkey's Armed Forces and theSyrian National Army are planning a new operation against the SDF, composed mostly of the YPG/YPJ.[36][37] The new operation is set to resume efforts to create 30-kilometer (18.6-mile) wide "safe zones" along Turkey's border with Syria, President Erdoğan said in a statement.[38] The operation aims at theTal Rifaat andManbij regions west of theEuphrates and other areas further east. Meanwhile, Ankara is in talks with Moscow over the operation. President Erdoğan reiterated his determination for the operation on 8 August 2022.[39][needs update]
Turkey and the Turkish-backed Syrian National Army (SNA) launched an offensive against the Kurdish-ledSyrian Democratic Forces (SDF) amid thefall of the Assad regime. Beginning on 30 November 2024 withOperation Dawn of Freedom, the offensive aims to expand Turkish-controlled territory. Major battles include the2024 Manbij offensive and the2024 Kobani clashes, with ongoing fighting into 2025.[40]
The territory of the Turkish-occupied region is located within the northern areas ofAleppo,Raqqa andHasakah governorates. On 26 February 2018, the territory connected with the mostlyrebel-heldIdlib Governorate.[41]
TheSyrian National Army captured an area of 2,225 square kilometres duringOperation Euphrates Shield.[42] Areas captured during the operation included villages betweenAzaz andal-Rai, such asKafr Kalbin; Kafrah;Sawran;Ihtaimlat;Dabiq;Turkman Bareh; Kafr Elward; Ghoz;Ghaytun;Akhtarin;Baruza;Tall Tanah;Kaljibrin;Qebbet al-Turkmen;Ghandoura; Arab Hassan Sabghir; Mahsenli;Qabasin and Halwanji.FollowingOperation Olive Branch, Syrian National Army extended the region with the capture of the entireAfrin District.[43] In addition to its administrative centreAfrin, the district includes settlements such asBulbul,Maabatli,Rajo,Jindires,Sharran andShaykh al-Hadid. According to the 2004 Syrian census, the district had a population of 172,095 before the war.[44]
DuringOperation Peace Spring,Turkish Armed Forces and itsallies captured a total area of between 3,412 square kilometres (1,317 sq mi)[45] and 4,220 square kilometres (1,630 sq mi),[46] and 68 settlements, includingRas al-Ayn,Tell Abyad,Suluk,Mabrouka andManajir and cut theM4 highway.[47][48][49] SNA forces captured 3 villages in the Manbij countryside shortly after the launch of the operation.[50]
There are further intentions by the Turkish government to include the areas captured by theSyrian Democratic Forces during theiroffensive west of the Euphrates into the safe zone, which includes settlements such asManbij andArima.[51][52]
Northern Syria, including the Turkish-controlled region, has historically been ethnically highly diverse, inhabited predominately byArabs,Kurds,Turkmens, Yazidis andCircassians.[53][54] As of 2020, Arabs constituted a majority in the Turkish-controlled areas.[55] Before the Turkish occupation, the al-Bab area had an Arab majority, while the Afrin area had a Kurdish majority.[55][56][57] Tell Abyad was mostly Arab,[58] while Ras al-Ayn was dominated by Kurds.[59] However, all these areas were strongly affected by refugee shifts and population movement due to the civil war, making accurate demographic estimates difficult.[56][60] Great numbers of Syrian refugees moved voluntarily or involuntarily into these areas after the Turkish intervention.[55][60]
The population of the Turkish-dominated territories is generally Muslim, with the Euphrates Shield zone as well as Tell Abyad being deeply conservative in regards to religion.[55] There were some Christian communities in the later Turkish-occupied areas: A small Evangelical Christian community existed in Afrin, while Christians (mostlySyrian Armenians andAssyrians) lived in Tell Abyad and Ras al-Ayn. These Christians generally fled in advance for fear of reprisal.[61][62]
After the Turkish-led forces had captured Afrin District (Afrin Canton) in early 2018, they began to implement a resettlement policy by moving their mostly Arab fighters[63] and refugees from southern Syria[64] into the empty homes that belonged to displaced locals.[65] The previous owners, most of themKurds or Yazidis, were often prevented from returning to Afrin.[63][64] Though some Kurdish militias of the SNA and the Turkish-backed civilian councils opposed these resettlement policies, most SNA units fully supported them.[64] Refugees from EasternGhouta,Damascus, said that they were part of "an organised demographic change" which was said to replace the Kurdish population of Afrin with an Arab majority.[63] More than 200,000 people fled from Afrin District during the Turkish intervention by March 2018,[66] while 458,000 displaced persons from other parts of Syria were settled in Afrin following the Turkish intervention.[67]
A report of the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic,[68] submitted to the UN Human Rights Council pursuant to its resolution 43/28 for consideration at the 45th session of the Human Rights Council (commencing 14 September 2020), the Independent International Commission presents evidence of numerous human rights abuses against civilian population, and especially Kurdish civilian population, by the Turkish state and "non-state factions" such as the Syrian National Army, acting as de facto agents of Turkey. In paragraph 47, the Report addresses looting and property appropriation, noting that "[t]hroughout the Afrin region, multiple accounts indicate that the property of Kurdish owners was looted and appropriated by Syrian National Army members in a coordinated manner. For example, in September 2019, civilians in the Shaykh al-Hadid subdistrict (of the Afrin region) described how members of Division 14, Brigade 142 (the Suleiman Shah Brigade) of the Syrian National Army had gone from door to door instructing Kurdish families with fewer than three members to vacate their houses to accommodate individuals arriving from outside of Afrin."
It was reported that Yazidi and other Kurdish women and girls have been kidnapped by the SNA since the occupation of Afrin began in early 2018, either forransom,rape,forced marriage, or because of perceived links to theDemocratic Union Party.[69][70] It was alleged that many of them were later killed.[71][72] This activity has been interpreted as part of anIslamist policy of discouraging women from leaving their homes and to remove them from the civic activity they had been encouraged to take part in under theAutonomous Administration of North and East Syria,[71] as well as part of a broader plan to discourage the return of Yazidi and otherKurdish refugees who fled Afrin in 2018.[73][74]
This list includes some of the largest cities and towns in the region.
| English name | Arabic name | Kurdish name | Turkish name |
|---|---|---|---|
| Azaz | أعزاز (ʾAʿzāz) | – | Azez |
| Afrin | عفرين (Ifrīn) | Efrîn | Afrin |
| Jarabulus | جرابلس (Jarābulus, Jrāblos) | Cerablûs | Cerablus |
| Akhtarin | أخترين (Akhtarīn) | – | Aktarin |
| Tell Abyad | تل أبيض (Tall Abyaḍ) | Girê Spî | Tel Abyad |
| al-Bab | الباب (al-Bāb) | – | El-Bab |
| Ras al-Ayn | رأس العين (Raʾs al-ʿAyn) | Serê Kaniyê | Resulayn |
| Sawran | صوران (Ṣawrān) | – | Soran |
| Bizaah | بزاعة (B'zaah) | – | Bizza |
| Qabasin | قباسين (Qabbāsīn) | Qebasîn | Başköy |
| Marea | مارع (Māriʿ, Mēreʿ) | – | Mare |
| Manbij | – | – | – |
The occupation zone is formally governed by theSyrian Interim Government, analternative government of the Syrian opposition based in Azaz.[7] Despite this, the area is governed by a number of autonomous local councils which work closely with Turkey.[75][76] These councils operate as a "Turkish-European style government".[4] In general, Turkey exerts a direct influence on the region's government,[77] and Turkish civilian officials such as governors have been appointed to oversee the area.[4][78] Turkish officials mostly act as advisors, allowing the councils to run the day-to-day government and collect their own taxes.[4] Overall, Turkey is in the process of forming aproto-state in northern Syria,[11] and regional expertJoshua Landis has said that the country "is prepared to, in a sense, quasi-annex this region" to prevent it from being retaken by the Syrian government.[1] TurkishMinister of the InteriorSüleyman Soylu declared in January 2019 that northern Syria is "part of the Turkish homeland" per theMisak-ı Millî of 1920.[78]
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Since the establishment of the occupation zone, the Turkish authorities have striven to restore civil society in the areas under their control[79] and to also bind the region more closely to Turkey.[8][2][80] As part of these efforts, towns and villages have been demilitarized by dismantling military checkpoints and moving the local militias to barracks and camps outside areas populated by civilians.[79] However, some members of the military remain influential in the governance of the zone; for example,Hamza Division commanderSayf Bulad serves asde facto military governor of al-Bab since 2017.[81]
Turkey also funds education and health services, supports the region's economy, and has trained a new police force.[2][80] It has constructed a new hospital in al-Bab.[4] Some locals describe these developments as "Turkification" of the region. However, many locals have accepted or even welcomed this, as they said that the area is better off economically, politically, and socially under a Turkishprotectorate.[1][4] TheWhite Helmets volunteers entered Afrin region after Turkey occupied the area.[82] For Turkish officials, restoring order and improving the situation in northern Syria was a "justice of fraternity" stemming from Ottoman times, as one deputy governor explained.[4] The presence of Turkish soldiers prevents a Syrian government offensive into the area.[83]
Following the conquest of Afrin District, civilian councils were appointed to govern and rebuild the area.[75] A temporary council was organised by the Turkish-backedSyrian Kurds Independent Association in March 2018, to oversee aid, education and media in the area.[84] It was later replaced by an interim council that was appointed in Afrin city on 12 April.[85][86] The latter council, appointed by city elders, included eleven Kurds, eight Arabs and one Turkmen. While Zuheyr Haydar, a Kurdish representative who was appointed to serve as president of the council, stated that a more democratic election would take place if displaced citizens return, this has yet to take place.PYD officials have criticized the council and said it was working with an "occupying force".[87]
On 19 April 2018, a local council was appointed in Jindires.[88] During Operation Peace Spring, similar appointed councils were established in Tell Abyad[89] and Ras al-Ayn.[90] Turkish-backed administrators have refused to register people with Kurdish names, and insist that Christian and other minority women wear anIslamic veil before being issued documents.[91] An August 2020US Department of Defense report criticised Turkey and the SNA for "arbitrary detentions,extra-judicial killings, seizure and resettlement of new populations in private properties" and "the repeated and deliberate shutting off of water access to half a million civilians".[92]
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On 30 May 2017,[93] theSyrian National Army (SNA) composed of primarilySyrian Turkmen as well asSyrian Arabs rebels operating in northern Syria was formed, mostly being a part of Operation Euphrates Shield or groups active in the area that are allied to the groups participating in the operation.[94] The general aim of the group is to assist Turkey in creating a "safe zone" in Syria and to establish aNational Army, which will operate in the land gained as a result of Turkish military intervention[95] and answer to the Syrian Interim Government.[79]
By August 2018, the SNA was stated to be an "organized military bloc" that had largely overcome the chronic factionalism which had traditionally affected the Syrian rebels. Military colleges had been set up, and training as well as discipline had been improved.[80] Though clashes and inter-unit violence still happened,[76][11][4] they were no longer as serious as in the past. A military court had been established in al-Bab, amilitary police was organized to oversee discipline,[80][11] and local civilian authorities were given more power over the militant groups. Nevertheless, most militias have attempted to maintain their autonomy to some degree, with the Interim Government having little actual control over them. To achieve the formation of a new national army without risking a mutiny, Turkey has applied soft pressure on the different groups while punishing only the most independent-minded and disloyal among them.[11] The FSA units in the zone have accepted theIstanbul-based "Syrian Islamic Council" as religious authority.[79] SNA fighters are paid salaries by the Turkish government, though the falling value ofTurkish lira began to cause resentment among the SNA by mid-2018. One fighter said that "when the Turkish lira began to lose value against theSyrian pound our salaries became worthless".[2]
By July 2018, the Turkish Armed Forces (TAF) have built "at least" six military bases in the zone, "raising concerns that [the TAF] may be settling in for a long-term presence in northern Syria".[77]
After the establishment of Turkish control in the region, a number of streets, squares and villages have been renamed. Examples are the villages Kastal Mekdad, Kutana and the city of Ra'i, which are officially called Selçuk obası, Zafer obası and Çobanbey. The Saraya Square in Afrin bears the name Erdoğan Square. Signs with both Turkish and Arabic name stress the former with a bigger font.[96]
Turkey has organized a new law enforcement authority in the zone in early 2017, the "Free Police" which is divided into the National Police and Public Security Forces. The Free Police includes both male as well as female officers.[97] It is trained, equipped, and paid by Turkish authorities,[97] and consequently loyal to the Turkish state.[98][99]
The National Police, headed by Maj. Gen. Abdul Razzaq Aslan, is further divided into the Civil Police Force and the Special Forces. Most of the police members are trained in theTurkish National Police Academy.[80] To maintain security in Afrin District, Turkey has also employed former members of the Free East Ghouta Police who had relocated to northern Syria after the end of theSiege of Eastern Ghouta.[100]
In addition, Turkey has established several courts in the zone which employ Syrian judges and follow Syria's judicial code, while being overseen and supported by Turkish judges and prosecutors. A special "terrorism court" was established in Azaz, while a correction facility was organized in al-Bab.[4]
![[icon]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aWiki_letter_w_cropped.svg) | This sectionneeds expansion. You can help byadding to it.(July 2018) |
By July 2018, Turkey was playing an "increasingly prominent—and contentious—role in the region's local economy."[77] It invested heavily in the zone, providing work opportunities and helping to rebuild the economy. Turkish-led development projects restored infrastructure such as dams, electricity and roads.[80] Turkish private companies, such asPTT,[8]Türk Telekom, theIndependent Industrialists and Businessmen Association, and ET Energy launched projects in the area, as did a number of Syrian firms and businessmen.[80] One problematic result of Turkey's economic influence was that the country'scurrency and debt crisis has also affected the zone, as Turkey pays salaries and services with Turkish lira whose value greatly dropped in course of 2018, harming the local economy.[2][80]
As result of the Turkish-led invasion, Afrin's tourism sector which had survived the civil war up to that point, collapsed. After open combat between the SDF and pro-Turkish forces had mostly concluded, Turkey attempted to restabilize the region and revive local tourism. It removed the tight control over visitors and passers that had previously existed under the PYD-led administration, and the new local councils and the Free Police attempted to provide stability and incentives for tourists to return. By July 2018, these measures began to have an effect, with some visitors coming to Afrin's popular recreational areas, such asMaydanki Lake.[101]
Turkey has taken "full control over the educational process" in the zone,[80] and funds all education services.[2] Thousands of teachers in the zone are paid by Turkey.[4] Several schools have been restored or newly built, with their curricula partially adjusted toeducation in Turkey: Though the curricula of theSyrian Ministry of Education still provide the basis, certain parts have been modified to fit the Turkish point of view in regard to history, for example replacing "Ottoman occupation" with "Ottoman rule".[80]Turkish is taught asforeign language since first class and those who attend schools in the occupation zones can subsequently attend universities in Turkey.[8][1][80]
After thefall of the Assad regime, the Turkish controlled areas of northern Aleppo transferred to the Syrian transitional government in February 2025.[5] Military occupation inAfrin District also ended in September 2025.[6]
| This sectionneeds expansion. You can help byadding to it.(April 2018) |
The Syrian government underBashar al-Assad criticized Turkish presence in Northern Syria on multiple occasions and called for their withdrawal.[102][103][104][105][106][107]
Syrian Opposition groups have expressed mixed, but generally positive opinions over the Turkish offensives. TheSyrian Opposition Coalition expressed support for Turkish intervention and called for Turkey to help the Free Syrian Army launch offensives in the region.[108] Other Opposition groups, such asSyria's Tomorrow Movement have condemned the intervention.[109]
Democratic Federation of Northern Syria – On 26 August 2016, theShahba region civilian council condemned the occupation of Jarabulus as a Turkish attempt to expand into Syria, likening it to theBattle of Marj Dabiq and suggesting that Jarabulus would become a "grave for the criminal occupier Erdoğan and his mercenaries".[110]
Kurdish National Council – On 20 April 2018, the ENKS has called for the expulsion of Turkish forces from Afrin.[111] On 2 July 2019, ENKS voiced its support for the establishment of an ethnically diverse local council in Afrin.[112]
Azerbaijan – On 20 September 2016,Qənirə Paşayeva,member of parliament, said that Turkey would have an obligation to protect the civilians in northern Syria from terror groups and would have the right to protect itself from the attacks originating from Syria with the intervention.[114]
China – On 29 October 2021, China's Deputy Permanent Representative to the United Nations, AmbassadorGeng Shuang said "Since Turkey illegally invaded northeastern Syria, it has repeatedly cut off the water supply service from the Alouk water station"[115] Also stating "China urges Turkey to abide by the international law, including international humanitarian law, protect civilians, maintain infrastructure operations, and guarantee humanitarian access for the UN".[116]
Cyprus – On 9 September 2016, theCyprus House of Representatives unanimously adopted a resolution condemning "the unacceptable invasion of Turkey into Syria, under the pretext of war against terrorism." It also called on the international community to demand Turkey's withdrawal from Syria.[117]
EU – On 14 October 2019, following Turkeys' offensive theCouncil of the European Union released a press statement condemning Turkey's military action and called for Turkey to cease its "unilateral" military action in north-eastern Syria. It again recalled previous made statements by member states to halt arms exports licensing to Turkey and also recalled that it would not provide "stabilisation or development assistance where the rights of local populations are ignored or violated."[118][119]
France – On 30 March 2018,Macron assured the SDF of France's support for the stabilization of the security zone in the north-east of Syria, within the framework of an inclusive and balanced governance, to prevent any resurgence ofIslamic State.[120]
Iran – On 31 August 2016,Iranian foreign ministry spokesmanBahram Ghasemi urged Ankara to quickly wrap up its military intervention in Syria, saying it was an "unacceptable" violation of Syrian sovereignty.[121]
Spain – On 14 October 2019 the Spanish Foreign MinisterJosep Borrell Fontelles (also High Representative of European Union Foreign Affairs and Security Policy) in an interview stated that the 28 European member states "have unanimously decided to condemn...in strong terms what in the end is a military attack."[122] Agreeing to also limit arms exports over its offensive in northern Syria, which Turkey "fully rejected and condemned" the decisions made by the EU regarding the issue.[123]
United States of America – On 7 October 2021, President Joe Biden's announcement stated "The situation in and in relation to Syria, and in particular the actions by the Government of Turkey to conduct a military offensive into northeast Syria, undermines the campaign to defeat the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria, or ISIS, endangers civilians, and further threatens to undermine the peace, security, and stability in the region, and continues to pose an unusual and extraordinary threat to the national security and foreign policy of the United States." thus extending the national emergency powers in Syria by another year.[124]Turkish occupation "is an existential threat to the Assad government's ability to reclaim the entirety of its territory, which is a key argument that regime loyalists make in their support of Bashar al-Assad's government," Heras said.
You can't mistake the front line between the Syrian army and Turkey's occupation force east of Aleppo.
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