Turkic Christians

Gravestone fromKyrgyzstan (thirteenth/fourteenth century) withSyriac Christian inscriptions
Total population
Over 1.8 million
Regions with significant populations
Russia	c. 1,500,000[1]
Moldova	c. 126,000[2]
Kazakhstan	c. 40,300[3][4]
Ukraine	c. 32,000[5]
Iraq	c. 30,000[6]
Kyrgyzstan	c. 25,000–50,000[7]
Uzbekistan	c. 10,000[8]
Bulgaria	c. 5,425[9]
Azerbaijan	c. 5,000[10][11]
Turkey	c. 4,500–35,000[12]
Languages
Turkic languages
Religion
PredominantlyEastern Orthodoxy MinorityProtestantism,Catholicism

TurkicChristians are ethnicTurkic people who followChristianity. The Christian Turkic peoples represent an intersection ofTurkic and Christian cultural and historical dynamics, particularly within the context ofCentral Asia,Balkans, and theCaucasus. Historically, the most prominent group within this category were theBulgars. Currently, The major Christian-Turkic peoples include theChuvash ofChuvashia, and theGagauz (Gökoğuz) ofMoldova andYakuts of theSakha Republic. The vast majority ofChuvash and theGagauz areEastern Orthodox Christians.^[13][14][15]

The Bulgars wereTurkicsemi-nomadic warrior tribes that flourished in thePontic–Caspian steppe and theVolga region between the 5th and 7th centuries.^[16] They became known asnomadic equestrians in theVolga-Ural region, but some researchers believe that their ethnic roots can be traced toCentral Asia.^[17] The Bulgars converted to Christianity during the early medieval period, around the 10th century. UnderKhan Boris I (r. 852–889), they officially adopted Christianity in 865 and embracedEastern Orthodoxy in 879.^[18] Their Christian identity was shaped by a blend ofByzantine and localEastern Christian traditions, which significantly influenced their cultural and political relations with neighboring states.^[18]

Between the 9th and 14th centuries, theChurch of the East, often referred to as theNestorian Church, had a notable presence amongTurkic peoples, including theNaimans, a prominent Turkic tribe. Between the 9th and 14th centuries, it represented the world's largestChristian denomination in terms of geographical extent, and in the Middle Ages was one of the three major Christian powerhouses of Eurasia alongsideLatin Catholicism andGreek Orthodoxy.^[19] It establisheddioceses and communities stretching from theMediterranean Sea and today's Iraq andIran, toIndia (theSaint Thomas Syrian Christians ofKerala), theMongol kingdoms andTurkic tribes in Central Asia, andChina during theTang dynasty (7th–9th centuries). This period marked a significant expansion of the Church's influence into Central Asia and beyond.^[20] It even revived in Gaochang and expanded inXinjiang in theYuan dynasty period.^[21][22][23] The rise of Islam in the region and the decline ofMongol power contributed to thepersecution and eventual disappearance of theChurch of the East fromCentral Asia.^[24][25]

In the 19th century, numerous Turkic groups within theRussian Empire, such as theNağaybäk,Chuvash of Chuvashia, andYakuts of the Sakha Republic, increasingly adopted Russian ways of life. Many of these communities converted en masse to Russian Orthodox Christianity, reflecting the broader cultural and religious influences of the empire during this period.^[26] MostNağaybäks areChristian and were largely converted during the 18th century.^[27]

TheBulgars, aTurkicsemi-nomadic semi-nomadic warrior tribe thrived in the expansive landscapes of the Pontic-Caspian steppe and the Volga region from the 5th to the 7th centuries. Originating fromCentral Asia, the Bulgars became renowned as skilled equestrians and fierce warriors, adapting to the demands of their environment while establishing a formidable presence in the region. By the 10th century, they began to embraceChristianity, a pivotal transformation that would shape their identity and influence in the broaderEurasian context.^[18] The Bulgars’ conversion to Christianity was formalized during the reign ofKhan Boris I, who ruled from 852 to 889. Under his leadership, the Bulgars officially adopted Christianity in 865, subsequently embracingEastern Orthodoxy in 879.^[18] This shift was not merely a religious change but a complex interplay of cultural exchanges with theByzantine Empire and local EasternChristian traditions. As a result, their Christian identity emerged from a rich tapestry of influences, which significantly impacted their political and cultural relationships with neighboring states and peoples.^[18]

TheUyghur Khaganate had established itself by the year 744 AD.^[28] Through trade relations established with China, its capital city ofOrdu Baliq in central Mongolia'sOrkhon Valley became a wealthy center of commerce,^[29] and a significant portion of the Uyghur population abandoned their nomadic lifestyle for asedentary one. The Uyghur Khaganate produced extensive literature, and a relatively high number of its inhabitants were literate.^[30] The official state religion of the early Uyghur Khaganate wasManichaeism, which was introduced through the conversion ofBögü Qaghan by theSogdians after theAn Lushan rebellion.^[31] The Uyghur Khaganate was tolerant of religious diversity and practiced variety of religions including Buddhism, Christianity, shamanism and Manichaeism.^[32]

The term "Gagauz" collectively refers to Turkic people in the Balkans who speak theGagauz language, distinct from Balkan Gagauz Turkish. Two main theories exist regarding their origins. The first suggests that the Gagauz are descendants of the Pechenegs and Kumans, who migrated south into Bulgaria and intermingled with Oghuz Turks, which may explain their Christian faith.^[33] However, the Gagauz language shows no signs of Kipchak influence, being classified solely as a Western Oghuz Turkish dialect.^[34] The second theory posits a purely Oghuz origin, suggesting thatSeljuk Turks fromAnatolia migrated to theByzantine Empire in the 13th century, converted to Christianity, and were settled in Dobruja, now part ofBulgaria andRomania.^[35]

TheCumans were a Turkic nomadic people from Central Asia, part of the western branch of theCuman–Kipchak confederation.^[36] In 1227, they werebaptized en masse in Moldavia byRobert,Archbishop of Esztergom, following the orders ofBortz Khan, who pledged allegiance to KingAndrew II of Hungary.^[37] As a result, manyCumans in the region began to embrace Catholicism.^[38] In 1228, theRoman Catholic Diocese of Cumania was established as a Latin-rite bishopric west of theSiret River, in present-dayRomania, and it existed until 1241. This area had been under Cuman control since around 1100. Catholic missions in the region began after King Andrew II grantedBurzenland to theTeutonic Knights in 1211. Although Andrew expelled the Knights from the territory in 1225,Dominican friars continued the mission to convert the Cumans. Two years later, Robert baptized Boricius, a prominent Cuman chieftain, further solidifying the Cumans’ conversion to Catholicism.^[39] The term Cumania had come to mean any Catholic subordinated to theMilcovul Diocese, so much so that in some cases, the terms Cuman andWallach (more precisely, Catholic Wallach, as the Orthodox Christians were considered schismatic, and the Pope did not officially recognise them) were interchangeable.

TheChurch of the East played a major role in the history ofChristianity in Asia, between the 9th and 14th centuries, it represented the world's largestChristian denomination in terms of geographical extent, and in the Middle Ages was one of the three major Christian powerhouses of Eurasia alongsideLatin Catholicism andGreek Orthodoxy.^[19] It establisheddioceses and communities stretching from theMediterranean Sea and today's Iraq andIran, toIndia (theSaint Thomas Syrian Christians ofKerala), theMongol kingdoms andTurkic tribes in Central Asia, andChina during theTang dynasty (7th–9th centuries). In the 13th and 14th centuries, the church experienced a final period of expansion under theMongol Empire, whereinfluential Church of the East clergy sat in the Mongol court.^[41][42]

Many Mongol andTurkic tribes, such as theKeraites,^[43] theNaimans, theMerkit, theOngud,^[44] and to a large extent theQara Khitai (who practiced it side-by-side with Buddhism),^[45] wereNestorian Christian.^[46] TheKeraites had converted to theChurch of the East (Nestorianism) in the early 11th century and are one of the possible sources of the EuropeanPrester John legend.^[47] TheNaimans that adopted Nestorianism probably converted around the same time theKeraites adopted the religion in the 11th century.^[48]

TheKarluks were a prominentnomadicTurkic tribal confederacy residing in the regions of Kara-Irtysh (BlackIrtysh) and theTarbagatai Mountains west of theAltay Mountains inCentral Asia. TheKarluks converted toNestorian Christianity at the end of the 8th century CE, about 15 years after they established themselves in theJetisu region.^[40] This was the first time theChurch of the East received such major sponsorship by an eastern power.^[49] Particularly, theChigils wereChristians of theNestorian denomination.^[50]

The practice of milk-drinking during thesefasts was first sanctioned by theNestorian Church in the 11th century in order to accommodate the conversion of some 200,000 Turkic Christians, who lived on meat and milk, to Nestorian Christianity.^[51] The first account suggests that Markus Buyruk Khan, formerly known asSadiq Khan, converted to Nestorian Christianity in 1007 CE, along with about 200,000 of his Turco-Mongolic nomadic tribespeople.^[52] TheKeraite were one of the five dominant tribes in the Tatar confederation before Genghis Khan united these tribes into theMongol Empire. They lived in the Orkhon Steppes, located south of Lake Baikal and north of the Gobi Desert, in what is now known as theAltai-Sayan region. Following their conversion, the NestorianMetropolitan consulted Patriarch John VI (also known asPrester John) about fasting practices for the new converts.^[53] It was decreed that they should abstain from meat and replace fermented horse milk with freshmilk. This adaptation preserved key aspects of their nomadic diet while integrating Christian practices.^[54]

ProminentNestorian Turkic Christian figures includeYahballaha III, who served asPatriarch of the East from 1281 to 1317.^[55]Rabban Bar Sauma, a Uyghur or Ongud monk, became a diplomat for the NestorianChurch of the East in China.^[56] Additionally,Toghrul was a khan of theKeraites, a notable Turkic group.^[57] Other figures of includeAïbeg and Serkis andSergius of Samarkand.^[58]

However, the rise of Islam and the subsequent decline of Mongol power led to increasingpersecution of theNestorian Christians.^[59][60][61] By the late medieval period, these dynamics contributed to the gradual disappearance of theChurch of the East fromCentral Asia, erasing a once-vibrant Christian presence in the region.^[62]Tamerlane virtually exterminated theChurch of the East, which had previously been a major branch of Christianity but afterwards became largely confined to a small area now known as theAssyrian Triangle,^[63] currently divided between present-dayIraq,Turkey,Iran andSyria.^[64]

Partial or fullTurkification of Anatolian Greeks dates back to the early 1100s, as a result of living together with neighboring Turks.^[65] The origin of theKaramanlides is disputed; they are either descendants ofByzantine Greeks who were linguisticallyTurkified after being pressured through a gradual process of assimilation by the Ottomans, or ofTurkic soldiers who settled in the region after the Turkic conquests and converted toChristianity.^[66][67] Greek scholars incline to the view that the Karamanlides were of Greek descent and adopted Turkish as their vernacular, either by force or as a result of their isolation from the Greek-speaking Orthodox Christians of the coastal regions. Turkish scholars regard them as the descendants of Turks who had migrated to Byzantine territories before the conquest or had served as mercenaries in the Byzantine armies and who had adopted the religion but not the language of their new rulers.^[68] Another theory supports that the Karamanlides may have been a mixture of Anatolian Greeks and Christian Turks.^[69] There is not enough evidence to prove how the early Karamanlides identified themselves.^[70]

During the Ottoman Empire, Turkish Christians were often overlooked, as their population was less than that of Armenians and Greeks, and all Christians were grouped together as a singlemillet. Throughout theTurkish War of Independence, many Christian Turks were actively loyal to theTurkish National Movement. Many Christian Turks also strongly refused the Greek identity and language, emphasising that they were Turkish and not Greek.^[71][72] There were increasingly high demands for the establishment of an Eastern OrthodoxPatriarchate for Turks.^[73] Later,Eftim I left theGreek Orthodox Church and established theAutocephalous Turkish Orthodox Patriarchate, as anautocephalouspatriarchate of theEastern Orthodox Church. The Turkish Patriarchate staunchly supported theTurkish National Movement, and Eftim I was a close friend ofMustafa Kemal Atatürk.^[74] On 1 June 1923, followers of Eftim I raided theEcumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople, and assaulted the pro-GreekMeletius IV,Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople, causing French military police to intervene. Meletius IV was left badly injured.^[75] Eftim I praised the attack when addressing the public, and called for the resignation of Meletius IV, who he referred to as an "enemy of the Turkish people".^[76] On October 2, 1923, Eftim I and his followers, accompanied by some Turkish policemen, forcefully entered theHoly Synod when it was in session, and ordered thebishops to declare Meletius IV deposed. Out of the eight bishops, six voted in favor of Eftim I while two voted in favor of Meletius IV. After achieving the desired result, Eftim I announced that he would remain at the Ecumenial Patriarchate of Constantinople until seven new members, nominated by him, would be admitted to the Holy Synod, and that a someone who was loyal to Turkey would be elected asEcumenical Patriarch of Constantinople. His demands were met, except for the election of a new patriarch, and Eftim I returned to Ankara as the “official representative” of all Orthodox Christians.^[77] Meletius IV signed hisabdication on 20 September 1923, although he did not announce it due to his conflict with Eftim I.^[78] The Greek and Turkish governments both pressured Meletius IV to abdicate, and the Holy Synod received orders from the Turkish government to prepare for a new election, and to understand and accept that the next Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople was going to be a Turkish subject elected by Turkish subjects.^[79] On December 6, 1923,Gregorios VII, was elected Ecumenical Patriarch. Eftim I, who was banned from attending the election, opposed Gregorios VII. On the day after the election, Eftim I and his followers raided the Holy Synod and expelled all of its occupants, declaring that in his position as “general procurator”, he would continue the occupation until a new election for a legitimate Patriarch took place. In an open letter to Gregorios VII, he said "you know that you do not have the confidence of the Government. By accepting the office of Patriarch you have harmed the interests of the community. I advise you to resign."^[80] Two days later, the Turkish police returned the building to the Patriarchate. TheMinister of Justice stated in theTBMM that the Patriarchate was solely a religious institution and that the Turkish government approved of the election of Gregorios VII. On December 25, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk thanked Gregorios VII for his loyal expressions towards the Republic of Turkey.^[81][82] In June 1925, Turkey and Greece officially resolved the conflict over the Ecumenical Patriarchate, andBasil III was elected.^[83]

Many Karamanlides were forced to leave their homes during the1923 population exchange between Greece and Turkey. Early estimates placed the number of Turkish-speaking Orthodox Christians expelled from central and southern Anatolia at around 100,000.^[84]Stevan K. Pavlowitch says that the Karamanlides were numbered at around 400,000 at the time of the exchange.^[85]

A policy ofChristianization of the MuslimTatars was enacted by the Russian authorities, beginning in 1552, resulting in the emergence ofKryashens (keräşen / keräşennär), also known as"Christianized Tatars".^[86] In the 16th century,Ivan the Terribleforcefully Christianized many Volga Tatars, beginning a wave of persecutions and forced conversions under later Russian rulers and Orthodox clergy until the mid-eighteenth century.^[87] Kryahsen Tatars live in much of theVolga-Ural area. Today, they tend to be assimilated among the Russians and other Tatar groups.^[88]

In the 19th century, numerous Turkic groups within theRussian Empire, such as theNağaybäk,Chuvash of Chuvashia, andYakuts of the Sakha Republic, increasingly adopted Russian ways of life. Many of these communities converted en masse to Russian Orthodox Christianity, reflecting the broader cultural and religious influences of the empire during this period.^[26] MostNağaybäks areChristian and were largely converted during the 18th century.^[27]

Prominent Christians of Tatar descent includeMacarius Bulgakov, who served as the Metropolitan of Moscow andKolomna from 1879 to 1882. He was a member of numerous learned societies, including theRussian Academy of Sciences, and is regarded as one of the foremostchurch historians of the 19th century Russian Empire.^[89] Another notable figure isSergei Bulgakov, a RussianOrthodoxtheologian,priest,philosopher, andeconomist. Orthodox writer and scholar David Bentley Hart has referred to Bulgakov as "the greatest systematic theologian of the twentieth century",^[90][91] noting that he came from alineage of Orthodox priests of Tatar descent spanning six generations.^[92][93][94]

TheMolokans are a Christianethnoreligious group and a RussianSpiritual Christian sect that originated from Eastern Orthodoxy in the East Slavic lands.^[95] Molokans fromTambov, who proselytized in settlements along the Volga River and in the Orenburg, Saratov, and Astrakhan provinces, were primarily of Slavic descent. By the 17th century,Tambov Oblast had been completely settled bySlavic people. The regions where they spread their teachings had significant populations of Muslims and individuals of Tatar or Turkic ancestry.

Between the 1600s and the late 1800s,intermarriage between ethnic Russians and Tatars (with "Tatar" referring broadly to those of Turkic background) was common. For a Tatar, marrying a Russian could enhance social status. Muslim Tatars who converted to Christianity gained exemptions from taxes and other privileges.^[96] It is well known that a segment of ethnic Russians has mixed ancestry that includes Middle Eastern or Mongolic Turkic influences alongside Slavic roots. The idea thatMolokans have a blend of Slavic and Turkic genetics is also supported by various accounts.^[97]

Molokans complicated the Eastern Orthodox Church's efforts to convert Tatar or Turkic Muslims, as they taught that religiousiconography was a sin. Known for their iconoclastic beliefs —deemed heretical by the Orthodox Church— Molokans attracted someMuslims, who found resonance in their preservation of certain Islamic traditions. Additionally, some Muslim converts in Russia were known to adopt Christianity for the benefits it conferred. As Molokans generally practicedendogamy and married within their faith, they would accept converts regardless of their ethnic background.^[97]

There had beenChristian conversions amongUighur Muslims in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, but these were suppressed by theFirst East Turkestan Republic government agents.^{[98][99][100]} In 1904,George W. Hunter with theChina Inland Mission opened the first mission station for CIM inXinjiang.^[101] But already in 1892, theMission Covenant Church of Sweden started missions in the area aroundKashgar, and later built mission stations, churches, hospitals and schools inYarkant andYengisar.^[102] Because of persecution, the churches were destroyed and the believers were scattered.^[103] From 1894 to 1938, manyUighur Muslimsconverted to Christianity. They were killed, tortured and jailed.^{[104][105][106]} Christian missionaries were expelled.^[107] According to the national census, 0.5% or 1,142Uyghurs in Kazakhstan wereChristians in 2009.^[108]

According to the historianGeoffrey Blainey from theUniversity of Melbourne, since the 1960s there has been a substantial increase in the number of conversions from Islam to Christianity, mostly to theEvangelical andPentecostal forms.^[109] Turkic Christians of Muslim background communities can be found inAzerbaijan,^[110][111]Bulgaria,^[112][113]Germany,^[114][115]Kazakhstan,^[116]Kyrgyzstan,^[117][118]Russia,^[119]Turkey,^{[120][121][122][123]} andUzbekistan.^[124]

The main Turkic Christian peoples include theChuvash ofChuvashia, theGagauz ofMoldova, and theYakuts of theSakha Republic. The vast majority ofChuvash and theGagauz areEastern Orthodox Christians.^{[13][125][14]}

The Chuvash people are aTurkic ethnic group, a branch of theOgurs, native to an area stretching from theIdel-Ural (Volga-Ural) region toSiberia.^[126] Most of them live inChuvashia and the surrounding areas, although Chuvash communities may be found throughout theRussian Federation. They speakChuvash, aTurkic language that diverged from other languages in thefamily more than a millennium ago. Among the Chuvash believers, the majority areEastern Orthodox Christians although a minority followSunni Islam orVattisen Yaly. The traditional religion of theChuvash of Russia, while containing many ancient Turkic concepts, also shares some elements withZoroastrianism,Khazar Judaism, and Islam. Most Chuvash converted toEastern Orthodox Christianity in the latter half of the 19th century,^[125] leading to the alignment of their festivals and rites with Orthodox Christian observances and the replacement of traditional practices with Christian ones. Despite this, a minority of Chuvash continue to practice their ancestral faith.^[127]

The Gagauz are aTurkicethnic group^[128] native to southernMoldova (Gagauzia,Taraclia District,Basarabeasca District) and southwesternUkraine (Budjak).^[129] Gagauz are mostlyEastern Orthodox Christians.^[130] The term Gagauz is also often used as a collective naming ofTurkic people living in theBalkans, speaking theGagauz language, a language separated fromBalkan Gagauz Turkish. The Turkic thesis is divided into two main subgroups. The first posits that theGagauz are descendants of thePechenegs andKumans, who migrated south from the north intoBulgaria, where they mingled with theOghuz Turks. This theory could explain their Christian faith; however, it is important to note that there are no signs of a Kipchak origin in theGagauz language, which is exclusively Western Oghuz and classified as a Turkish dialect.^[131] The second subgroup suggests a purely Oghuz origin. It argues that a group ofSeljuk Turks fromAnatolia migrated to theByzantine Empire in the 13th century, adopted Christianity, and were settled by the Byzantine Emperor inDobruja, an area that is now part of Bulgaria andRomania.^[132]

Most of Orthodox Gagauzs belong to theMoldovan Orthodox Church (formally known asMetropolis of Chișinău and All Moldova), which is subordinate to theRussian Orthodox Church. There have been a number of attempts from the 1930s into the 21st century to tie theTurkish Orthodox Patriarchate with the ethnically Turkic, Greek Orthodox Gagauz minority in Bessarabia.^[133]

Kryashens are a sub-group of theVolga Tatars, with the vast majority beingOrthodox Christians.^[134] A policy ofChristianization of the Muslim Tatars was enacted by the Russian authorities, beginning in 1552, resulting in the emergence of Kryashens (keräşen / keräşennär), also known as"Christianized Tatars".^[135] In the 16th century,Ivan the Terribleforcefully Christianized many Volga Tatars, beginning a wave of persecutions and forced conversions under later Russian rulers and Orthodox clergy until the mid-eighteenth century.^[87] Kryahsen Tatars live in much of theVolga-Ural area. Today, they tend to be assimilated among the Russians and other Tatar groups.^[88]

During Soviet times, an alternative version for the ethnogenesis of Kryashens emerged, which suggested that their ancestors adopted Christianity voluntarily during times ofVolga Bulgaria. HistorianMaxim Glukhov connected their roots toKeraites.^[136][137]

The Kryashens had little religious and educational infrastructure in the 16th and 17th centuries. However, during the 18th century they were given many privileges and facilities were built or accommodated for the Kryashens. The first Tatar school for converts was established in 1863 while the first seminary was founded in 1872.

TheNağaybäk, an indigenous Turkic people in Russia, are predominantly Christian, having been largely converted to Christianity during the 18th century.^[138] During the 19th century, manyKhakas accepted the Russian ways of life, and most were converted en masse toRussian Orthodox Christianity.^[26]

Some Azerbaijanis of the Republic ofAzerbaijan are believed to be descended from the inhabitants ofCaucasian Albania, an ancient country located in the easternCaucasus region, and various Iranian peoples which settled the region.^[140] They claim there is evidence that, due to repeated invasions and migrations, the aboriginal Caucasian population may have gradually been culturally and linguistically assimilated, first by Iranian peoples, such as thePersians,^[141] and later by theOghuz Turks.

Considerable information has been learned about the Caucasian Albanians, includingtheir language, history, early conversion toChristianity, and relations with theArmenians andGeorgians, under whose strong religious and cultural influence the Caucasian Albanians came in the coming centuries.^[142][143] ChristianAzerbaijanis number around 5,000 people in the Republic of Azerbaijan and consist mostly of recent converts.^[10][11] In recent years, someAzerbaijanis in Iran have begun converting toChristianity,^[144] which is strictly prohibited and can result in imprisonment.^[145]

According to 2009 national census 39,172 ethnicKazakhs areChristians (0.38% of all Kazakhstani Kazakhs).^[3] A 2015 study estimates some 19,000 Christians from a Muslim background residing inKyrgyzstan, though not all are necessarily citizens ofKyrgyzstan.^[146] While other scholars estimated the total number of Muslim Kyrgyz converts to Christianity between 25,000^[147] to 50,000, although the government disputes that figure.^[148] Exact numbers of Muslim Kyrgyz converts to Christianity vary but an estimate of around 20,000 is generally accepted among scholars.^[7] A 2015 study estimates some 10,000 MuslimUzbek converted toChristianity, most of them belonging to some sort ofevangelical orcharismaticProtestant community.^[8] According to 2009 national census 1,794Uzbeks inKazakhstan areChristians.^[149] InRussia there are some long-term Uzbek workers who have converted toEastern Orthodoxy throughmissionaries.^[119]

A minority of theIraqi Turkmen areRoman Catholics,^{[150][151][152]} and their number was estimated at about 30,000 in 2015.^[153][154] In 2017, they comprised around 1% of the Iraqi Turkmen.^[155] Iraqi Turkmen Catholics were distinct fromCitadel Christians. Iraqi Turkmen Catholics wereLatin Catholic and lived all throughTurkmeneli, including Kirkuk. The Citadel Christians wereChaldean Catholic and lived solely in Kirkuk. Furthermore, Citadel Christians were ethnically Assyrian whereas the Iraqi Turkmen Catholics were ethnicallyTurkic. Citadel Christians, numbering "a few thousand" in 2017, were significantly fewer than Iraqi Turkmen Catholics.^[156] In 2021, the Turkmen Bible Partnership translated theNew Testament into the Iraqi Turkmen dialect and printed and distributed 2,000 copies.^[157]

There is anethnic TurkishProtestant Christian community inTurkey numbering around ~10,000,^[158][123] mostly adherents, and most of them coming from a Muslim Turkish background.^{[159][160][161][162]} In 2003, theMilliyet newspaper claimed that 35,000 Turkish Muslims had converted to Christianity.^[12] A 2015 study estimates about 4,500 Christians are from a previous Muslim background in the country.^[163] While other sources estimated the number of the Turkish who converted to Christianity (most of them secret worshippers) between 4,000–6,000, or more than those numbers.^[164][122] Though, there are several significant and major Protestant churches and worship sites in Turkey protected legally, most of them are located in the 4 large cities ofIstanbul,Izmir,Ankara andBursa.

Prominent ethnic Turkish Christians includePaul Mulla,Antuan Ilgit andJulio Murat, these Turkish prelates of the Catholic Church;Nazlı Tolga, a journalist;^[165][166]Leyla Gencer, anoperatic soprano;^[167]Ziya Meral, a scientist and economist;Rabia Kazan, an author and activist;^[168]Tunch Ilkin, a football player;^[169] along withHakan Taştan and Turan Topal.^[170]

TheKaramanlides (Greek:Καραμανλήδες,romanized: Karamanlídes;Turkish:Karamanlılar), also known asKaramanli Greeks^{[171][172][173]} or simplyKaramanlis, are a traditionallyTurkish-speakingGreek Orthodox people native to the region ofKaraman inAnatolia.

Some scholars traditionally regard Karamanlides as Turkish-speaking Greeks,^{[171][174][175]} though their exact ethnic origin is disputed; they could either be descendants ofByzantine Greeks who were linguisticallyTurkified, or ofChristian Turkic soldiers who settled in the region after the Turkic conquests, or even both.^[69] The Karamanlides were forced to leave Anatolia during the1923 population exchange between Greece and Turkey. Today, a majority of the population live inGreece and have fully integrated into Greek society.

TheUrums (/ʊəˈruːm/,/ʊˈruːm/;Greek:Ουρούμ,Urúm;Turkish andCrimean Tatar:Urum,IPA:[uˈɾum]) are several groups ofTurkic-speakingGreek Orthodox people native toCrimea. The emergence and development of the Urum identity took place from 13th to the 17th centuries. Bringing together theCrimean Greeks along with Greek-speakingCrimean Goths, with other indigenous groups that had long inhabited the region, resulting in a gradual transformation of their collective identity.^[176]

TheCaucasus Greeks or more commonlyΚαυκάσιοι Έλληνες, also known as theGreeks of Transcaucasia and Russian Asia Minor, are the ethnicGreeks of theNorth Caucasus andTranscaucasia in what is now southwesternRussia,Georgia, and northeasternTurkey. These specifically include thePontic Greeks, though they today span a much wider region including the Russian north Caucasus, and the former Russian Caucasus provinces of theBatum Oblast' and theKars Oblast' (the so-calledRussian Asia Minor), now in north-eastern Turkey andAdjara in Georgia. A large number of Caucasus Greeks who settled in Georgia became referred to asUrum (from the Turkish for '[Byzantine] Romans') and spoke a Turkish dialect with a large admixture of Pontic Greek, Georgian, and Armenian vocabulary.^[177] According to local Greek legend, after the suppression of their revolt against Ottoman rule, these Turkish-speaking but Christian Orthodox Caucasus Greeks had been given the choice by SultanSelim I either to accept Islam but continue to use their Greek mother tongue, or to use the Turkish language but retain their Christian Orthodox faith.^[178] Selim I had been based in theTrebizond region before he became Sultan in 1512, since he was himself of partlyPontic Greek origin on the side of his motherGülbahar Hatun.^[179][180]

Nevertheless, most Caucasus Greeks had never had to face this predicament of having to choose between their Christian Orthodox faith and theirPontic Greek language and so were able to retain both, although when in Russian territory they eventually came to adopt Russian as their second language for public and educational purposes.^[181] Caucasus Greeks also often maintained some command of Turkish as more or less a third language, thanks to their own roots in north-eastern Anatolia, where they had after all lived (usually very uneasily and in a state of intermittent warfare) alongside Turkish-speaking Muslims since the Seljuk-backed Turkish migrations into 'the lands of Rum' or Anatolia during the 11th and 12th centuries.^[182] Pontic Greeks in Georgia and the Russian Caucasus also maintained this command of Turkish so as to communicate with their Muslim neighbours living in the region, most of whom used Turkish as alingua franca or even adopted it as their first language irrespective of actual ethnic origin.^[183]

TheAutocephalous Turkish Orthodox Patriarchate (Turkish:Bağımsız Türk Ortodoks Patrikhanesi), also referred to as theTurkish Orthodox Church (Turkish:Türk Ortodoks Kilisesi), is anunrecognizedautocephalousEastern Orthodox organisation based inTurkey, descending from Turkish-speaking Eastern Orthodox Christians. It was founded inKayseri byPavlos Karahisarithis, who became thepatriarch and took the name ofPapa Eftim I, in 1922.^[184]

In 1922 a pro-TurkishEastern Orthodox group, theGeneral Congregation of the Anatolian Turkish Orthodox (Turkish:Umum Anadolu Türk Ortodoksları Cemaatleri), was set up with the support from the Orthodox bishop ofHavza, as well as a number of other congregations^{[185][184][186]}

On 15 September 1922 the Autocephalous Orthodox Patriarchate of Anatolia was founded inKayseri byPavlos Karahisarithis, a supporter of the General Congregation of the Anatolian Turkish Orthodox.^[184] On 6 June 1924, in a conference in the Church of theVirgin Mary (Meryem Ana in Turkish) inGalata, it was decided to transfer the headquarters of the Turkish Orthodox Patriarchate from Kayseri toIstanbul. In the same session it was also decided that the Church of Virgin Mary would become the headquarter of the new Patriarchate of the Turkish Orthodox Church.^[184]

There have been a number of attempts from the 1930s into the 21st century to tie theTurkish Orthodox Patriarchate with the ethnically Turkic, Greek OrthodoxGagauz minority inBessarabia.^[187] A similar project was put into motion in October 2018, when the Turkish presidentRecep Tayyip Erdoğan visited theRepublic of Moldova and toured theAutonomous Territorial Unit of Gagauzia.^[188]

• 
  Boris I of Bulgaria^[189]
• 
  Boris and Gleb
• 
  Andrey Bogolyubsky
• 
  Abraham of Bulgaria^[190]
• 
  Elizabeth of Hungary, Queen of Serbia^[191]
• 
  Ahmet the Calligrapher^[192]

• Patriarchate conflict in Turkey
• Johannes Avetaranian, a Turkish mullah who converted from Islam to Christianity
• Mehmet Ali Ağca, formerGrey Wolves militant whoattempted to assassinate Pope John Paul II, converted from Islam to Christianity
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