TheTupolev Tu-154 (Russian:Tyполев Ту-154;NATO reporting name: "Careless") is athree-engined,medium-range,narrow-bodyairliner designed in the mid-1960s and manufactured byTupolev. A workhorse ofSoviet and (subsequently) Russian airlines for several decades, it carried half of all passengers flown byAeroflot and its subsidiaries (137.5 million/year or 243.8 billion passenger-km in 1990), remaining the standard domestic-route airliner of Russia and former Soviet states until the mid-2000s. It was exported to 17 non-Russian airlines and used as a head-of-state transport by theair forces of several countries.
The aircraft has a cruising speed of 850 km/h (460 kn; 530 mph)[2] and a range of 5,280 km (3,280 mi). Capable of operating from unpaved and gravelairfields with only basic facilities, it was widely used in the extremeArctic conditions of Russia's northern/eastern regions, where other airliners were unable to operate. Originally designed for a 45,000-hour service life (18,000 cycles), but capable of 80,000 hours with upgrades, it was expected to continue in service until 2016, although newernoise regulations have restricted it from flying to Western Europe and other regions.
The Tu-154 was developed to meet Aeroflot's requirement to replace thejet-poweredTu-104 and theAntonov An-10 andIlyushin Il-18turboprops. The requirements called for either a payload capacity of 16–18 t (35,000–40,000 lb) with arange of 2,850–4,000 km (1,540–2,160 nmi) while cruising at 900 km/h (490 kn), or a payload of 5.8 t (13,000 lb) with a range of 5,800–7,000 km (3,100–3,800 nmi) while cruising at 850 km/h (460 kn). A take-off distance of 2,600 m (8,500 ft) atmaximum takeoff weight was also stipulated as a requirement. Conceptually similar to the BritishHawker Siddeley Trident, which first flew in 1962, and the AmericanBoeing 727, which first flew in 1963, the medium-range Tu-154 was marketed by Tupolev at the same time as Ilyushin was marketing its long-rangeIlyushin Il-62. The Soviet Ministry of Aircraft Industry chose the Tu-154, as it incorporated the latest in Soviet aircraft design and best met Aeroflot's anticipated requirements for the 1970s and 1980s.[3]
The Tu-154first flew on 4 October 1968. The first deliveries to Aeroflot were in 1970 with freight (mail) services beginning in May 1971 and passenger services in February 1972. Limited production of the 154M model was still occurring as of January 2009, despite previous announcements of the end of production in 2006.[5] In total, 1025 Tu-154s have been built, 214 of which were still in service as of 14 December 2009.[6] The last serial Tu-154 was delivered to theRussian Defense Ministry on 19 February 2013[7] from the Aviakor factory, equipped with upgraded avionics, a VIP interior, and a communications suite. The factory has four unfinished airframes in its inventory, which can be completed if new orders are received.[8]
Tu-154 for Russian Ministry of Defence Manufacturing, Aviakor plant, 2009, one of several airframes built in the 1990s and left unsoldThe cockpit of the Tupolev Tu-154
The Tu-154 is powered by three rear-mounted,low-bypass turbofan engines arranged similarly to those of theBoeing 727, but it is slightly larger than its American counterpart. Both the 727 and the Tu-154 use anS-duct for the middle (number-two) engine. The original model was equipped withKuznetsovNK-8-2 engines, which were replaced withSolovievD-30KU-154s in the Tu-154M. All Tu-154 aircraft models have a relatively highthrust-to-weight ratio, giving the type excellent performance, though at the expense of lowerfuel efficiency. This became an important factor in later decades as fuel costs grew.[citation needed]Thecockpit is fitted with conventional dualyoke control columns. Flight control surfaces are hydraulically operated.
The cabin of the Tu-154, although of the same six-abreast seating layout, gives the impression of an oval interior, with a lower ceiling than is common onBoeing andAirbus airliners. The passenger cabin accommodates 128 passengers in a two-class layout and 164 passengers in single-class layout, and up to 180 passengers in high-density layout. The layout can be modified to a winter version where some seats are taken out and a wardrobe is installed for passenger coats. The passenger doors are smaller than on its Boeing and Airbus counterparts. Luggage space in the overhead compartments is very limited.
Like theTupolev Tu-134, the Tu-154 has a wingswept back at 35° at the quarter-chord line. The BritishHawker Siddeley Trident has the same sweepback angle, while the Boeing 727 has a slightly smaller sweepback angle of 32°. The wing also hasanhedral (downward sweep) which is a distinguishing feature of Russian low-wing airliners designed during this era. Most Western low-wing airliners such as the contemporary Boeing 727 havedihedral (upward sweep). The anhedral means that Russian airliners have poor lateral stability compared to their Western counterparts, but also are more resistant toDutch roll tendencies.
Considerably heavier than its predecessor Soviet-built airliner, theIlyushin Il-18, the Tu-154 was equipped with an oversizedlanding gear to reduce ground load, enabling it to operate from the same runways. The aircraft has two six-wheel mainbogies fitted with large, low-pressure tires that retract into pods extending from thetrailing edges of the wings (a common Tupolev feature), plus a two-wheel nose gear unit. Soft oleo struts (shock absorbers) provide a much smoother ride on bumpy airfields than most airliners, which very rarely operate on such poor surfaces.
The original requirement was to have a three-personflight crew –captain,first officer, andflight engineer – as opposed to a four- or five-person crew, as on other Soviet airliners. A fourth crew member, anavigator, was soon found to be still needed, and a seat was added on production aircraft, although that workstation was compromised due to the limitations of the original design. Navigators are no longer trained, and this profession is becoming obsolete with the retirement of the oldest Soviet-era planes.
The latest variant (Tu-154M-100, introduced 1998) includes an NVU-B3Doppler navigation system, a tripleautopilot, which provides an automatic ILS approach according toICAO category II weather minima, anautothrottle, a Doppler drift and speed measure system, and a "Kurs-MP" radio navigation suite.[citation needed] A stability and control augmentation system improves handling characteristics during manual flight. Modern upgrades normally include modernisedTCAS,GPS, and other systems (mostly American- or EU-made).
Early versions of the Tu-154 cannot be modified to meet the current Stage IIInoise regulations, so are no longer allowed to fly into airspace where such regulations are enforced, such as the European Union, but the Tu-154M's D-30 engines can be fitted withhush kits, allowing them to meet noise regulations.
Many variants of this airliner have been built. Like its Western counterpart, the Boeing 727, many of the Tu-154s in service have been hush-kitted, and some converted to freighters.
Tu-154
Tu-154 production started in 1970, and the first passenger flight was performed on 9 February 1972. Powered byKuznetsov NK-8-2 turbofans, it carried 164 passengers. About 42 were built.
Tu-154A
The first upgraded version of the original Tu-154, the A model, in production since 1974, added center-section fuel tanks and more emergency exits, while engines were upgraded to higher-thrust Kuznetsov NK-8-2U. Other upgrades include automatic flaps/slats and stabilizer controls and modified avionics. Max. takeoff weight – 94,000 kg (207,000 lb). There were 15 different interior layouts for the different domestic and international customers, seating between 144 and 152 passengers. To discern the A model from the base model note the spike at the junction of the fin and tail. This is a fat bullet on the A model, and a slender spike on the base model.[9]
Tu-154B
As the original Tu-154 and Tu-154A suffered wing cracks after a few years in service, a version with a new, stronger wing, designated Tu-154B, went into production in 1975. It also had an additional fuselage fuel tank, additional emergency exits in the tail. Also, the maximum takeoff weight increased to 98,000 kg (216,000 lb). Important to Aeroflot was the increased passenger capacity, hence lower operating costs. With the NK-8-2U engines the only way to improve the economics of the airplane was to spread costs across more seats.[10] Theautopilot was certified for ICAO Category II automatic approaches. Most previously built Tu-154 and Tu-154A were also modified into this variant, with the replacement of the wing. Maximum takeoff weight increased to 96,000 kg (212,000 lb). 111 were built.
Tu-154B-1
Aeroflot wanted this version for increased revenue on domestic routes. It carried 160 passengers. This version also had some minor modifications to the fuel system, avionics, air conditioning, and landing gear. 64 were built from 1977 to 1978.
Tu-154B-2
A minor modernization of Tu-154B-1. The airplane was designed to be converted from the 160-passenger version to a 180-passenger version by removing the galley.[11] The procedure took about2+1⁄2 hours. Some of the earlier Tu-154Bs were modified to that standard. Maximum takeoff weight increased to 98,000 kg (216,000 lb), later to 100,000 kg (220,000 lb). Some 311 aircraft were built, including VIP versions. A few remain in service.
Tu-154S
The Tu-154S is an all-cargo or freighter version of the Tu-154B, using a strengthened floor, and adding a forward cargo door on the port side of the fuselage. The aircraft could carry nine Soviet PAV-3 pallets. Maximum payload – 20,000 kg (44,000 lb). There were plans for 20 aircraft, but only nine were converted, two from Tu-154 models and seven from Tu-154B models. Trials were held in the early 1980s and the aircraft was authorized regular operations in 1984. By 1997 all had been retired.[12]
Tu-154M
The Tu-154M and Tu-154M Lux are the most highly upgraded versions, which first flew in 1982 and entered mass production in 1984. It uses more fuel-efficientSoloviev D-30KU-154 turbofans. Together with significant aerodynamic refinement, this led to much lower fuel consumption hence longer range, as well as lower operating costs. The aircraft has new double-slotted (instead of triple-slotted) flaps, with an extra 36-degree position (in addition to existing 15, 28 and 45-degree positions on older versions), which allows reduction of noise on approach. It also has a relocatedauxiliary power unit and numerous other improvements. Maximum takeoff weight increased first to 100,000 kg (220,000 lb), then to 102,000 kg (225,000 lb). Some aircraft are certified to 104,000 kg (229,000 lb). About 320 were manufactured. Mass production ended in 2006, though limited manufacturing continued as of January 2009. No new airframes have been built since the early 1990s, and production since then involved assembling aircraft from components on hand.[13] ChineseTu-154MD electronic intelligence aircraft carry a large-sizesynthetic-aperture radar (SAR) under their mainframe.[14][15]
Tu-154M-LK-1
Cosmonaut trainer. This was a salon VIP aircraft modified to traincosmonauts to fly theBuran reusable spacecraft, theSoviet equivalent of the USSpace Shuttle. The Tu-154 was used because the Buran required a steep descent, which the Tu-154 was capable of replicating. The cabin featured trainee workstations, one of which was identical to the Buran's flightdeck. The forward baggage compartment was converted into a camera bay, as the aircraft was used to train cosmonauts in observation and photographic techniques.[16]
The Russians also converted a Tu-154M to serve as anOpen Skies monitoring aircraft. They used the Tu-154M-LK-1, and converted it to a Tu-154M-ON. When not flying over North America, it is used to ferry cosmonauts. China is believed[according to whom?] to have converted one Tu-154 to anelectronic countermeasures aircraft.[18]
Tu-154M-100
Design of this variant started in 1994, but the first aircraft were not delivered until 1998. It is an upgraded version with Western avionics, including theFlight Management Computer,GPS,EGPWS,TCAS, and other modern systems. The airplane could carry up to 157 passengers. The cabin featured an automatic oxygen system and larger overhead bins. Three were produced, as payment of debts owed by Russia toSlovakia. Three aircraft were delivered in 1998 toSlovak Airlines, and sold back to Russia in 2003.[19]
A Tu-154 converted into a testbed for alternative fuels. It first flew in 1988 and was used until the fall of the Soviet Union, when it was placed in storage.
Air Koryo Tu-154BRussian Air Force Tu-154B-2Polish militaryVIP transport Tu-154M Lux aircraft from the dissolved 36th Special Air Transport Regiment. This onecrashed in heavy fog atSmolensk North Airport on 10 April 2010, killing all occupants, including the Polish President
As of August 2025, there were around 25 Tupolev Tu-154 aircraft of all variants still in governmental or military service.
A 45th aircraft has been sighted flying withAir Kyrgyzstan in 2017,[21] but is not listed by the airline as part of its fleet.[citation needed] A 46th aircraft, a Polish Tu-154 with operational number 102, is currently in storage at the military airport inMińsk Mazowiecki. It was operated by36th Special Aviation Regiment, but after the2010 Polish Air Force Tu-154 crash of the Tu-154 101, the Regiment has been disbanded and the plane was grounded. It was fully operational, but the government decided not to use or sell it until the investigation into the Smoleńsk crash is finished. As of June 2021 the aircraft is not flying, and it is unlikely to come back into service, since the government operates a fleet of brand-new, more fuel-efficient jets like theGulfstream G550 and theBoeing 737 NG. In 2020 it was revealed by the investigation team, led byAntoni Macierewicz, that the aircraft was structurally damaged. The access to the aircraft was restricted by the general prosecutor, and entering its hangar requires a special permission.[citation needed]
As of June 2015, the remaining operators were:[22][needs update]
In January 2010 Russianflag carrierAeroflot announced the retirement of its Tu-154 fleet after 40 years, with the last scheduled flight being Aeroflot Flight 736 fromYekaterinburg toMoscow on 31 December 2009.[25] In December 2010,Uzbekistan Airways also declared that it was retiring its Tu-154s, replaced by the Airbus A320.[26] In February 2011, all remainingIranian Tu-154s were grounded after two incidents.[27][28]
On 27 December 2016, theRussian Ministry of Defence announced that it had grounded all of its Tu-154s until the end of the investigation into theDecember 2016 crash of a 1983 Tupolev Tu-154.[29] This was followed by the grounding of all Tu-154s in Russia.[30][31] The Tu-154 had crashed into theBlack Sea just after takeoff fromSochi, Russia, on 25 December 2016 killing all 92 people on board, including 64 members of theAlexandrov Ensemble, an official army choir of theRussian Armed Forces.[30][31]
In October 2020ALROSA, the last Russian passenger airline to operate this aircraft, retired its last remaining Tu-154.[32]
Between 1970 and December 2016 there were 110 serious incidents involving the Tu-154,[35] including 73 hull losses,[36] with 2,911 fatalities.[37] Of the fatal incidents, five resulted fromterrorist or military terrorist action (two other wartime losses were non-fatal), several from poor runway conditions in winter (includingone in which the airplane strucksnow plows on the runway), cargo overloading in the lapse of post-Soviet federal safety standards, and mid-air collisions due to faultyair traffic control. Other incidents resulted from mechanical problems, running out of fuel on unscheduled routes,pilot errors (including inadequate flight training for new crews), and cargo fires; several accidents remain unexplained.
On 2 January 2011, Russia's Federal Transport Oversight Agency advised airlines to stop using remaining examples of the Tu-154 (B variant) until thefatal fire incident in Surgut had been investigated.[38] Its operation in Iran ceased in February 2011 due to a number of crashes and incidents involving the type (almost 9% of all Tu-154 losses have occurred in Iran). This grounding compounded the effects of US embargo on civil aircraft parts, substantially decreasing the number of airworthy aircraft in the Iranian civil fleet.[39] In 2010 there were two fatal losses of the Tu-154 due to pilot error and/or weather conditions (a Polish presidential jet attempting a rural airfield landing in heavy fog, the2010 Polish Air Force Tu-154 crash, and a Russian-registered plane that suffered engine stall after a crew member accidentally de-activated a fuel transfer pump). Following these accidents, in March 2011 the Russian Federal Bureau of Aviation recommended a withdrawal of remaining Tu-154Ms from service.[40]
Air Crew is the 1979action film revolving around the exploits of a Soviet Tu-154 crew on an international flight, the first Soviet film in thedisaster genre.[citation needed]
^OKB Tupolev, A History of the Design Bureau and its Aircraft, Yefin Gordon and Vladimir Rigmant, translated by Alexander Boyd, edited by Dmitriy Komissarov (Hinckley, UK, 2005)ISBN1-85780-214-4 p. 257.
Yefin Gordon and Vladimir Rigmant,OKB Tupolev, A History of the Design Bureau and its Aircraft, translated by Alexander Boyd, edited by Dmitriy Komissarov (Hinckley, UK, 2005)ISBN1-85780-214-4
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