Tunisians (Arabic:تونسيون,romanized: Tūnisiyyūn) are the citizens and nationals ofTunisia inNorth Africa, who speakTunisian Arabic and share a commonTunisian culture and identity. In addition to the approximately 12 million residents in Tunisia, aTunisian diaspora has been established with modern migration, particularly inWestern Europe, namelyFrance,Italy andGermany. The vast majority of Tunisians areArabs who adhere toSunni Islam.[23]
ThePhoenicians, aSemitic people,migrated and settled in the region of present-day Tunisia from the 12th to the 2nd century BC, establishing numerous settlements on the coast, includingancient Carthage which emerged as the most powerful by the 7th century BC.[24] The migrants brought with them their cultureand language that progressively spread from Tunisia's coastal areas to the rest of the coastal areas ofNorthwest Africa, as well as parts of theIberian Peninsula and the Mediterranean islands.[25] The descendants of the Phoenician settlers came to be known as thePunic people. From the 8th century BC, most Tunisians werePunic.[26] Evidence fromSicily shows that some western Phoenicians (Punic people) used the term "Phoinix,"[27] although it is not clear what term they self-identified with, as they may have self-identified themselves as 𐤊𐤍𐤏𐤍𐤌 (knʿnm, "Canaanites").[28] A passage fromAugustine's writings has frequently been understood as suggesting that they called themselvesCanaanites (Chanani inLatin).[29] ThePunic language, a variety of thePhoenician language, seems to have survived well past written use. Arab geographeral-Bakri described a people who lived inSirte who spoke a language which was notBerber,Latin, orCoptic, well after theMuslim conquest of the Maghreb. Punic culture survived thedestruction of Carthage in 146 BC.[30]
When Carthage fell in 146 BC to theRomans,[31][32] the coastal population was mainly Punic, but that influence decreased away from the coast.[26] From theRoman period until the Islamic conquest,Latins,Greeks andNumidians further influenced the Tunisians, which prior to the modern era, Tunisians were known asAfāriqah,[33] from the ancient name of Tunisia,Ifriqiya orAfrica in the antiquity, which gave the present-day name of the continent Africa.[34]
From theMuslim conquest of the Maghreb in 673, many Arabs settled with Arab tribes in Tunisia which was calledIfriqiya,[35][36] in places likeKairouan which soon became one of the purely Arab settlements in theUmayyad Caliphate.[35] This accelerated in the 11th century with the large migrations of the Arab tribes ofBanu Hilal andBanu Sulaym to Ifriqiya and the rest of theMaghreb.[37] Some Persians and other Middle-Eastern populations also settled in Ifriqiya, which had its name from the ancient name, theRoman province of Africa.[38][39] In the early-11th century,Normans from theKingdom of Sicily took over Ifriqiya and founded theKingdom of Africa, which lasted from 1135 to 1160.[40][41] Muslim refugees from Sicily and Malta were encouraged by the Normans to settle in Tunisia during this period.[42]
After theReconquista and expulsion of non-Christians andMoriscos from Spain, many SpanishMuslims and Jews also arrived. According to Matthew Carr, "As many as eighty thousand Moriscos settled in Tunisia, most of them in and around the capital, Tunis, which still contains a quarter known as Zuqaq al-Andalus, or Andalusia Alley."[43]
By around the 15th century, the region of modern-day Tunisia had already been almost completelyArabized, establishingArabs as the demographic majority of the population.[44]
During the 17th to the 19th centuries, Ifriqiya came underSpanish, thenOttoman rule and hostedMorisco thenItalian immigrants from 1609.[45][46] Tunis was officially integrated into theOttoman Empire as theEyalet of Tunis (province), eventually including all of theMaghreb except Morocco and Mauritania.
Under the Ottoman Empire, the boundaries of the territory inhabited by Tunisians contracted; Ifriqiya lost territory to the west (Constantine) and to the east (Tripoli). In the 19th century, the rulers of Tunisia became aware of the ongoing efforts at political and socialreform in the Ottoman capital. The Bey of Tunis then, by his own lights but informed by the Turkish example, attempted to effect a modernizing reform of institutions and the economy. Tunisian international debt grew unmanageable. This was the reason or pretext for French forces toestablish a Protectorate in 1881.
A remnant of the centuries of Turkish rule is the presence ofa population of Turkish origin, historically the male descendants were referred to as theKouloughlis.
Independence from France was achieved on 20 March 1956. The State was established as aconstitutional monarchy with theBey of Tunis,Muhammad VIII al-Amin Bey, as the king of Tunisia. In 1957, the Prime MinisterHabib Bourguiba abolished the monarchy and firmly established hisNeo Destour (New Constitution) party. In the 1970s the economy of Tunisia expanded at a very healthy rate. Oil was discovered and tourism continued. City and countryside populations drew roughly equal in number. Yet agricultural problems and urban unemployment led to increased migration to Europe.
The 84-year-old President Bourguiba was overthrown and replaced byBen Ali his Prime Minister on 7 November 1987.[47] However, the Ben Ali regime came to an end 23 years later on 14 January 2011, in the events of theTunisian Revolution, following nationwide demonstrations precipitated by high unemployment, food inflation, corruption,[48][49] a lack ofpolitical freedoms likefreedom of speech[50] and poorliving conditions. The Revolution would also be the catalyst that would start theArab Spring.
Following the overthrow of Ben Ali, Tunisians elected aConstituent Assembly to draft a new constitution and an interim government known as theTroika because it was a coalition of three parties; the IslamistEnnahda Movement in the lead, with the centre-leftCongress for the Republic and the left-leaningEttakatol as minority partners.[51][52] Widespread discontent remained however, leading to the2013–14 Tunisian political crisis.[53][54] As a result of the efforts made by theTunisian National Dialogue Quartet, the Constituent Assembly completed its work, the interim government resigned, andnew elections were held in 2014, completing the transition to a democratic state.[55] TheTunisian National Dialogue Quartet was awarded the2015 Nobel Peace Prize for "its decisive contribution to the building of a pluralistic democracy in Tunisia in the wake of the Tunisian Revolution of 2011".[56]
Beyond the political changes, which lead to Tunisia becoming a recognised democracy in 2014,[57] those events also brought important changes to thepost-2011 Tunisian culture.
The vast majority of the country's population consists chiefly ofArabs, who comprise 98% of the total population.[23][58][59] Other ethnic groups includeEuropeans, which account for 1% of the population, as well asBerbers, who also make up 1%.[60] While Ottoman influence was particularly important in the formation of aTurkish-Tunisian community among the country's elites, other peoples also migrated to Tunisia over different periods of time, including but not limited to, sub-Saharans, Greeks, Romans, Phoenicians (Punics), Jews and French settlers.[61] Nevertheless, from 1870, the distinction between the Tunisian masses and the Turkish elite became blurred.[62] There is also a minority Berber population (1%)[60] mainly located in the Dahar mountains.
From the late 19th century to after World War II, Tunisia was home to large populations of French andItalians (255,000Europeans in 1956),[63] although nearly all of them, along with the Jewish population, left after Tunisia became independent. Thehistory of the Jews in Tunisia goes back some 2,600 years, with theEl Ghriba Synagogue inDjerba believed one of, if not the oldest synagogue in the world. In 1948 the Jewish population was an estimated 105,000, but by 2013 only about 900 remained.[64]
Tunisia's constitution establishesIslam as the officialstate religion, with around 98% of the population identifying asMuslims. The remaining 2% primarily followChristianity orJudaism.[65] According to a 2018Arab Barometer survey, an overwhelming 99.4% of Tunisians still identified as Muslim at the time.[66] However, the same survey revealed a notable shift in religious self-identification: over one-third of Tunisians described themselves as non-religious. This marked a sharp rise from around 12% in 2013 to approximately 33% in 2018, positioning Tunisia as the least religious country in the Arab world at the time.[67] Among young people, nearly half identified as non-religious, according to the same survey.[68]
The majority of Tunisians follow theMaliki school ofSunni Islam, and theirmosques are marked by square minarets. DuringOttoman rule, theTurks introduced theHanafi school, which is still practiced byfamilies of Turkish descent. Their mosques are characterized by octagonal minarets.[69] Sunnis make up the majority of Muslims, withnon-denominational Muslims as the second-largest group,[70][full citation needed] followed by theIbaditeAmazighs.[71][72]
TheChurch of Carthage, in particular, became significant in thehistory of Christianity, playing a key role in the development ofChristian philosophy andtheology, and producing many prominent religious scholars and theologians.[73] Before Tunisia's independence, the country was home to over250,000 Christians, mostly of Italian and Maltese descent. Many Italian settlers left for Italy or France following independence from France.[74] Today, Tunisia's Christian population is around 35,000, primarilyCatholics (22,000), with a smaller number ofProtestants.[75][76] Historically,Berber Christians lived in someNefzaoua villages until the early 15th century,[77] and a community ofTunisian Christians existed inTozeur until the 18th century.[78] According to the International Religious Freedom Report for 2007, thousands of Tunisian Muslims haveconverted to Christianity.[79][80]
Judaism is the third largest religion in Tunisia, with an estimated population of between 1,000 and 1,400 members.[81][82] About one-third of Tunisia's Jewish population resides in and around the capital, while the rest live on the island ofDjerba, known for its 39 synagogues, with the community dating back over 2,600 years.[83] Djerba is home to theEl Ghriba synagogue, one of theoldest and continuously used synagogues in the world. It is considered a pilgrimage site, with annual celebrations due to its historical significance and the belief that it was constructed with stones fromSolomon's temple.[84]
The nationalflag of Tunisia is predominantly red and consists of a white circle in the middle containing a redcrescent around afive-pointed star. TheHafsid dynasty used a similar flag during the Middle Ages, it consisted of a white crescent pointing upwards and a white five-pointed star but instead of featuring the red color it featured the yellow color.[85] The crescent and star might also recall theOttoman flag as an indication of Tunisia's history as a part of theOttoman Empire.[86][87]Whitney Smith states that the crescent was first emblazoned on standards and buildings in the Punic state ofCarthage, located in present-day Tunisia. Since appearing on the Ottoman flag, they were widely adopted by Muslim countries. The sun is often represented with the crescent on ancient Punic artifacts and is associated with the ancientPunic religion, especially with theSign of Tanit.[88]
As for the national coat of arms, they are officially adopted in 1861 and include revised versions on 21 June 1956, and 30 May 1963. The top has a Carthaginian galley sailing on the sea while the lower part is divided vertically and on the right depicts a black lion seizing a silver scimitar. A banner bears the national motto: "Liberty, Order, Justice".[citation needed]
Imported by the Andalusians in the sixteenth century,jasmine has become the national flower of Tunisia.[89] The gathering takes place at dawn and then, upon nightfall, when young boys collect small bouquets, and later sell them to passersby on the street or to motorists stopped at intersections.[90]
Furthermore, jasmine is the subject of a specific sign language. A man who wears jasmine on his left ear indicates that he is single and in addition, offering white jasmine is seen as a proof of love while on the contrary, offering odorless winter jasmine is a sign of insolence.[91]
The hamsa (Tunisian Arabic:خمسة, also romanized khamsa) is a palm-shapedamulet popular in Tunisia and more generally in theMaghreb, and commonly used in jewelry and wall hangings.[92][93] Depicting the open right hand, an image recognized and used as a sign of protection in many times throughout history, the hamsa is believed to provide defense against theevil eye. It has been theorized that its origins lie inCarthage (modern-day Tunisia) and may have been associated with the GoddessTanit.[94]
The Chechia is the national headgear of Tunisia. Supple and cylindrical in shape, the chechia was imported into Tunisia in its current form from Spain, by theMoors expelled after the capture ofGranada in 1492. Finding in Tunisia a second homeland, they establish thecraft of the chechia there. After the independence of Tunisia in 1956 and with the arrival of manufactured goods andcustoms from the Europe, the wearing of the chechia tends to be limited to holidays and religious festivals; it is often associated with the elderly.[95]
Tunisian Arabic is a set ofdialects ofMaghrebi Arabic spoken in Tunisia. In addition to mastering French.[96] In theTunisian diaspora makes it common for Tunisians tocode-switch, mixing Arabic with French, English or other languages in daily speech.[97]
Moreover, Tunisian Arabic is closely related to theMaltese language,[98] that descended fromMaghrebi Arabic andSiculo-Arabic.[99][100]
Tunisian cuisine is a blend ofMediterranean cuisine and traditions. Its distinctive spicy fieriness comes from neighbouring Mediterranean countries and the many civilizations who have ruled Tunisian land:Romans,Vandals,Byzantines,Arabs, Spanish,Turkish, Italians (Sicilians), French, and the nativePunics-Berber people. Tunisian food uses a variety of ingredients and in different ways. The main dish that is served in Tunisia isCouscous, made of minuscule grains that are cooked and usually served with meat and vegetables. In cooking they also use a variety of flavors such as:olive oil,aniseed,coriander,cumin,caraway,cinnamon,saffron,mint, orange,blossom, and rose water.[citation needed]
Like all Mediterranean cultures, Tunisian culture offers a "sun cuisine", based mainly on olive oil, spices, tomatoes, seafood (a wide range of fish) and meat from rearing (lamb).[citation needed]
Tunisian architecture is traditionally expressed in various facets in Tunisia throughRoman architecture andIslamic architecture. Through many buildings,Kairouan forms the epicenter of an architectural movement expressing the relationship between buildings and spirituality with the ornamental decoration of religious buildings in the holy city. InDjerba, the architecture such as the fortress ofKef reflects the military and spiritual destiny of aSufi influence in the region.[citation needed]
The influential role of the various dynasties that ruled the country, particularly in building cities and princes of Raqqada Mahdia, illuminates the role of the geopolitical context in the architectural history of the country. Thus, many original fortresses that protected the coast from Byzantine invasions evolved into cities, likeMonastir,Sousse orLamta.[citation needed]
Themedina of Tunis, isWorld Heritage Site of UNESCO, and is a typical example of Islamic architecture. However, in the areas between the ports ofBizerte andGhar El Melh, settlements founded by theMoors fleeing Andalusia were reconquered by Catholic sovereigns and has more of a Christian influence.Given the cosmopolitan nature of cities in Tunisia, they have retained a diversity and juxtaposition of styles. Many buildings were designed by many different architects, artisans and entrepreneurs during the French protectorate. Among the most famous architects of that time wereVictor Valensi,Guy Raphael,Henri Saladin,Joss Ellenon andJean-Emile Resplandy.[101] Five distinct architectural and decorative styles are particularly popular: those of the eclectic style (neo-classical,baroque, etc..) Between 1881 and 1900 and then again until 1920 the style was neo-Mauresque, between 1925 and 1940 it was in theArt Deco style and then the modernist style between 1943 and 1947.[101]
According toMohammed Abdel Wahab, Tunisian music has been influenced by old Andalusian songs injected with Turkish, Persian and Greek influences. Of major note in Tunisian classical music is the Malouf. Deriving from the reign of theAghlabids in the 15th century, it is a particular type of Andalusian music. In urban areas it uses stringed instruments (fiddle,oud andKanun) and percussion (darbuka) while in rural areas, it may also be accompanied by instruments like themezoued,gasba and thezurna.[102]
The emergence of new patterns of racial and improvised music since the late 1990s changed the musical landscape of Tunisia. At the same time, the majority of the population is attracted by the music of Levantine origin (Egyptian, Lebanese or Syrian). Popular western music has also had major success with the emergence of many groups and festivals, including rock music,hip hop,reggae andjazz.
Among the major Tunisian contemporary artists includeHedi Habbouba,Saber Rebaï,Dhafer Youssef,Belgacem Bouguenna,Sonia M'barek andLatifa. Other notable musicians includeSalah El Mahdi,Anouar Brahem,Zied Gharsa andLotfi Bouchnak.
Tunisian cinema is today recognized as one of the most liberal, most inventive (and one of the most prize-winning) cinemas of Africa and the Middle-east. Since the 90s, Tunisia became an attractive place for filming and numerous companies emerged, serving the foreign film industry and became successful.[103] Tunisia also hosts theCarthage Film Festival which has been taking place since 1966. The festival gives priority to films from African and Middle-eastern countries. It is the oldest film festival on the African continent.[104]
In over a century of existence, Tunisian theatre hosted or gave birth to big names, such asSarah Bernhardt,Pauline Carton,Gérard Philipe andJean Marais to mention a few.[105] On 7 November 1962,Habib Bourguiba, whose brother is a playwright, devoted his speech to this art,[106] which he considers "a powerful means of disseminating culture and a most effective means of popular education".[107] From this date, 7 November is regarded as the Tunisian National Day of drama.[108]
The variety of dances performed by the Tunisians probably reflects the migration flows that have traversed the country throughout the centuries. Thus, the earlyPhoenicians brought with them their songs and dances, whose traces are rooted in the region of Tunis, while the Romans have left few traces of art in relation to their architectural contribution.[109] Religious dances were influenced bySufism but by the end of the 15th century, had progressively become Andalusian with their dances and urban music.
Oriental dance would arrive later with the Ottomans, although some experts in the history of Northwest African art have said it was brought to Tunisia by the first Turkish corsairs in the sixteenth century while others say that the origin of this dance goes back further to the era of matriarchy inMesopotamia and founded by the early Phoenicians.[110] This form of oriental dance usually performed in Tunisia insists on the movements of thepelvis in rhythm, movement highlighted by the elevation of the arms to horizontal, and feet moving in rhythm and transferring weight onto the right leg or left.[111]
The Nuba, more rooted in popular practice, is linked to the dancers and the Kerkennah Djerba to a lesser extent.[112] Some experts say that their dress is of Greek origin. Structured into several scenes, the dance is often accompanied by acrobatic games with jars filled with water.[112]
Among the Tunisian literary figures includeAli Douagi, who has produced more than 150 radio stories, over 500 poems and folk songs and nearly 15 plays,[113]Khraief Bashir[113] and others such asMoncef Ghachem,Mohamed Salah Ben Mrad orMahmoud Messadi. As for poetry, Tunisian poetry typically opts for nonconformity and innovation with poets such asAboul-Qacem Echebbi. As for literature, it is characterized by its critical approach. Contrary to the pessimism ofAlbert Memmi, who predicted that Tunisian literature was sentenced to die young,[114] a high number of Tunisian writers are abroad includingAbdelwahab Meddeb,Bakri Tahar,Mustapha Tlili,Hélé Béji orMellah Fawzi. The themes of wandering, exile and heartbreak are the focus of their creative writing.
Thenational bibliography lists 1249 non-school books published in 2002 in Tunisia.[115] In 2006 this figure had increased to 1,500 and 1,700 in 2007.[116] Nearly a third of the books are published for children.[citation needed]
Statistics of the Office of Tunisians Abroad show more than 128,000 Tunisian families in Europe with a concentration in France and Germany. Young Tunisians (less than 16 years of age) represent 25% of the Tunisian community abroad.[117] Thus there is currently a rejuvenation of the Tunisian diaspora which is now in its third generation. Women represent nearly 26% of the total community.[117] In France, their percentage is estimated at 38.2%. The portion of the diaspora who are over 60 years old is around 7%.[citation needed]
Originally, the largest part of the Tunisians in Europe worked in sectors requiring minimal qualifications. In effect the migrants of the 1960s and 70s were less educated (mostly farmers or manual labourers).[118]
Subsequently, the majority of Tunisians settled in France have worked in the service sector (hotels, restaurants or retail) or have headed small businesses. In 2008, Tunisia became the first of the Maghreb countries to sign a management agreement concerning the flow of migrants, at the impetus of PresidentNicolas Sarkozy: it provides easy access for almost 9,000 Tunisian students enrolled in French institutions,[118] but also almost 500titres de séjour (residency permits) for highly qualified individuals so that they can acquire experience in France, valid for a maximum of six years.[118]
Aboul-Qacem Echebbi,Abu Zakariya Yahya,Ahmad I ibn Mustafa,Aisha Al-Manoubya,Ali Douagi,Ali ibn Ziyad,Asad ibn al-Furat,Aziza Othmana,Azzedine Alaïa,Bchira Ben Mrad,Beji Caid Essebsi,Carlos Marcello,Chokri Belaid,Farhat Hached,Habib Bourguiba,Hassan ibn al-Nu'man,Hayreddin Pasha,Ibn Abi Zayd,Ibn al-Jazzar,Ibn Khaldun,Ibn Rachik,Ibrahim II of Ifriqiya,Lamine Bey,Max Azria,Mohamed Bouazizi,Mohamed Brahmi,Moncef Bey,Moufida Bourguiba,Tewhida Ben Sheikh,Muhammad al-Tahir ibn Ashur,Radhia Haddad,Sahnun,Tunisian National Dialogue Quartet (Entity winner of the 2015 nobel peace prize) andVictor Perez
Salah Mejri (United States),Bertrand Delanoë (France),Claude Bartolone (France),Dove Attia (France),M. Salah Baouendi (United States),Poorna Jagannathan (United States),Mustapha Tlili (United States),Ferrid Kheder (United States),Oussama Mellouli (United States),Leila Ben Youssef (United States),Mounir Laroussi (United States),Bushido (rapper) (Germany),Loco Dice (Germany),Sami Allagui (Germany),Änis Ben-Hatira (Germany),Mounir Chaftar (Germany),Sofian Chahed (Germany),Nejmeddin Daghfous (Germany),Marwan Kenzari (Netherlands),Rani Khedira (Germany),Sami Khedira (Germany),Ayman (Germany),Elyas M'Barek (Germany),Adel Tawil (Germany),Amel Karboul (Germany),Michel Boujenah (France),Tarak Ben Ammar (France),Lââm (France),Yoann Touzghar (France),Isleym (France),Hatem Ben Arfa (France),Sadek (France),Tunisiano (France),Afef Jnifen (Italy),Sana Hassainia (Canada),Hinda Hicks (England),Mohamed Hechmi Hamdi (England),Hend Sabry (Egypt),Ghassan bin Jiddo (Lebanon),Cyril Hanouna (France),Kev Adams (France), Sabrine Bentunsi (France),Moungi Bawendi (United States),Saïd Bouziri (France).
In Tunisia, free courses of instruction inTunisian Arabic are organised during the summer holidays for the children of Tunisian residents abroad, who are heavily influenced by the culture of the countries in which they live. Trips are also organised for them to experience Tunisian culture, history and civilisation.[citation needed]
Tunisians mainly carryE1b1 haplogroup (55%) andJ1 haplogroup (34.2%).[119][120]
Listed here are thehuman Y-chromosome DNA haplogroups in Tunisia.[121]
| Haplogroup | n | B | E1a | E1b1a | E1b1b1 | E1b1b1a3 | E1b1b1a4 | E1b1b1b | E1b1b1c | F | G | I | J1 | J2 | K | P,R | R1a1 | R1b1a | R1b1b | T |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Marker | M33 | M2 | M35 | V22 | V65 | M81 | M34 | M89 | M201 | M172 | V88 | M269 | M70 | |||||||
| Tunisia | 601 | 0.17 | 0.5 | 0.67 | 1.66 | 3 | 3.16 | 62.73 | 1.16 | 2.66 | 0.17 | 0.17 | 16.64 | 2.83 | 0.33 | 0.33 | 0.5 | 1.83 | 0.33 | 1.16 |
Elkamel, Sarra et al. (2021) wrote that: "Considering Tunisian populations as a whole, the majority part of their paternal haplogroups are of autochthonous Berber origin (71.67%), which co-exists with others assumedly from the Middle East (18.35%) and to a lesser extent from Sub-Saharan Africa (5.2%), Europe (3.45%) and Asia (1.33%)."[122]
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link){{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)Many Arabs settled in Qayrawan, which soon became one of several purely Arab settlements in the Arab Empire.
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