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Tunisian cuisine, thecuisine ofTunisia, consists of the cooking traditions, ingredients, recipes and techniques developed in Tunisia since antiquity. It is mainly a blend ofArab,Mediterranean,Punic, andBerber cuisine.[1] Historically, Tunisian cuisine witnessed influence and exchanges with many cultures and nations likeItalians,Andalusians,French andArabs.[2]
Like many countries in the Mediterranean basin, the Tunisian cuisine is heavily based onolive oil, spices,tomatoes, seafood and meat. Yet, it has a distinctive spiciness that differs it from surrounding cuisines.
Tunisian cuisine developed fromBerbers, ancient Carthage, Rome, the Islamic conquest of theMaghreb, and theOttoman Empire. The Tunisian cuisine has also been strongly influenced by Italian (especiallySicilian).[3]
During its era ofFrench colonial rule Tunisia marketed its difference tometropolitan France, effectively meaning that it played on French perceptions of "difference" (Orientalism) to sell the produce of the colonies to France. The majority of restaurants that catered to international visitors did not serve authentic colonial cuisine. Exoticness and difference were emphasized instead insouks and eateries. The European settlers who traveled to and from France shared their food experiences with the metropolitan French, but authentic Tunisian cuisine did not become integrated into the popularcuisine coloniale category ofFrench cuisine.[4]
Unlike other North African cuisines, Tunisian food is quite spicy. A popular condiment and ingredient which is used extensively in Tunisian cooking,harissa, is a mix of groundchili peppers, garlic, andcaraway[5] or spices commonly sold together as a paste. It is usually the most important ingredient in different sauces and gravies. Westernised harissa mostly contains red chilies to replaceblack cumin, which is different from standard cumin. Other common spices includecumin or cumin seeds,garlic, caraway seeds,coriander seeds andpaprika. A recipe for the sauce includes red chili peppers and garlic, flavored with coriander, cumin,olive oil and oftentomatoes.[citation needed] Harissa has been recognized on UNESCO's list of Intangible Heritage since 2022.[6]
Likeharissa or chili peppers, tomato paste is also an ingredient integral to the cuisine of Tunisia.Tuna,eggs,olives and various varieties ofpasta,cereals, herbs and spices are also ingredients which are prominently used in Tunisian cooking.[7]
Potatoes were introduced by European settlers in the early 20th century and have become a common ingredient in traditional salads, sauces and couscous. By 1990 one of the most common homemade foods with potatoes wasFrench fries.[8]
Tunisian culinary ingredients include the following typical elements:[9]
Tunisians also produce grapes, wheat, barley and orchard fruits. Once fermented they become wines, as in Chateau Mornag, a stapleTunisian wine; beers (Celtia, Berber or the Stella brand—now owned by Heineken of the Netherlands); brandy;Boukha fig liqueur, Thibarine herbal date liqueur, or other liqueurs made from pomegranates, dates,lotos (jujube),carob orprickly pears; and apple ciders. Scented waters with dark rose or blossom petals, similar toaguas frescas with flowers, have been called "scents from heaven".[by whom?]
Tabil, pronounced "tebel," is a word inTunisian Arabic meaning "seasoning" (similar toadobo in Spanish) and now refers to a particular Tunisian spice mix, although earlier it only meant ground coriander.Paula Wolfert makes the plausible claim thattabil is one of the spice mixes brought to Tunisia by Muslims coming fromAndalusia in 1492 after the fall ofGranada. Today,tabil, closely associated with the cooking of Tunisia, features garlic, cayenne pepper, caraway seeds and coriander pounded in a mortar, then dried in the sun. It is often used in cooking beef, veal and game. Organs are traditionally staples of Tunisian cooking, such as tripe, lamb brains, beef liver and fish heads.
Due to the long coastline and numerous fishing ports, seafood has a prominent place in Tunisian cuisine. Fish can also be grilled, baked, fried, or stuffed and seasoned with cumin (kamoun). Squid,cuttlefish and octopus are served in hot crispy batter with slices of lemon, in a cooked salad, or stuffed and served with couscous.
Snails have been eaten in Tunisia since prehistoric times, as excavated mounds of shells, mixed with stone tools and artifacts from theCaspian civilization in the region ofGafsa have proven.[10] Today, snails are still enjoyed in several regions, such as Hammamet, the central coast (Sahel) and Kairouan, but shunned in others.[11]
Tunisia has different regional aspects. Tunisian cuisine varies from north to south, from the coast to theAtlas Mountains, from urban areas to the countryside, and along religious affiliations.
For instance, the original inhabitants of Tunis (the Beldiya), do not useharissa much; they prefer milder food, and have also developed their own breads and desserts.
Closer to the Atlas mountain range, game is favoured. A diet may be composed ofquail, pigeons,squab,partridge, rabbits and hare. In the Cap Bon, people enjoy tuna, anchovies, sardines, sea bass and mackerels. On the island ofDjerba, where there is a denseJewish presence,kosher food is consumed.
Despite the strong presence of fast-food and restaurants inSfax, people from the city enjoy their traditional dishes more than anything else. Sfaxians tend to add their own touch to the Tunisian cuisine. They have staple regional dishes such asmarka which is a fish soup to which Sfaxians usually add vermicelli or couscous. The soup can also be eaten with barley bread or croutons.Charmoula is a dish made of baked raisins, onions and spices, traditionally eaten with salted fish on the first day ofEid al-Fitr. Sfax is also famed for its pastries. There are two kinds of Sfaxian pastries: daily pastry (locally calledhlou Arbi) likemakrouth,doria, andghraiba, and high-range pastry for weddings and special ceremonies (likebaklawa,mlabbes andka'ak warka').[12]
The region ofGabes is famous for usinghrous seasoning instead ofharissa (hrous Gabsi is a paste whose main ingredients are 50% salt pickled onions, 50% dried red chili, unlike harissa which does not contain onions).[7]
InDjerba, kosher cuisine is available as well as a myriad of restaurants[13] offering a wide range of regional dishes likerouz djerbi and mainly seafood-based meals.
Couscous, calledkosksi, is the national dish of Tunisia, and can be prepared in many ways. It is cooked in a special kind of double boiler called akiska:s in Arabic orcouscoussière in French. The couscous used is typically fine-grained. Called kosksi in the Tunisian dialect, it is a tiny granule made from steamed and dried durum wheat. It is the most popular national dish. Couscous is a dish for all events. It is frequently served in an enormous traditional bowl with bits of meat and vegetables. It is served mostly on festive occasions and large gatherings, from weddings to funerals.
Meats, vegetables and spices are cooked in the lower pot. Cooking steam rises through vents into the container above. It is layered with whole herbs such as bay leaves and covered with a fine-grain couscous. The couscous pasta is therefore cooked with aromatic steam. During the cooking process, the couscous needs to be regularly stirred with a fork to prevent lumping, much asrisotto is cooked.
The wordcouscous (alternatelycuscus orkuskus) was first noted in early 17th-century French, from Arabic kuskus, from kaskasa 'to pound', and is probably ofBerber origin.[14][15][16] The exact formation of the word presents some obscurities.[14] The Berber root *KS means "well formed, well rolled, rounded".[14][15] Numerous names and pronunciations for couscous exist around the world.[17]: 919
Couscous has been recognized on UNESCO's list of Intangible Cultural Heritage in 2018. This new designation by UNESCO is due to the worth of couscous and the tradition, practices, and ability that encompass it.
Preferred meats include lamb (kosksi bil ghalmi) or chicken (kosksi bil djaj), but regional substitutes include red snapper, grouper (kousksi bil mannani), sea bass (kosksi bil marqua), hare (kosksi bil arnab) or quail (kosksi bil hjall).Tunisians also love a salted form of bacon made with mutton meat in their dishes(kosksi bil qadid)Pork consumption is forbidden to Muslims in Tunisia, in accordance withIslamic dietary laws.
Tunisiantajines ortajine refers to a kind ofquiche, without a crust, made with beaten eggs, grated cheese, meat and various vegetable fillings, and baked like a large cake. The Tunisiantagine is very different from the Algerian or Moroccan dish but similar to the Italianfrittata or the Egyptianeggah.
A popular seafood specialty ispoisson complet or the whole fish. The entire fish, excluding internal organs, is prepared and fire-grilled, but it can also be fried, grilled or sautéed. It is accompanied with potato chips and either mild or spicytastira, made by frying green peppers, tomatoes, onion and a little garlic, all of which is finely chopped and served with an egg poached or sunny side up. Finely chopped fresh parsley is sprinkled on top; a drizzle of lemon juice and a pinch of sea salt complete the recipe.
In medieval Tunisia oases, a holiday dish called barkukishto was prepared with dried octopus and small fish in a vegetable broth.[18]
Tunisian sauces, which are closer to spicy broths, are an integral part of dishes. Otherwise olive oils are often used as sauces.
Harissa orhrissa is often said to be a Tunisian sauce, but it is better described as an ingredient of Tunisian cooking or a seasoning.Harissa is made of red chili, garlic, salt, cumin, coriander, olive oil, and sometimes also caraway or mint.
Kerkennaise andmloukhia are other frequently used sauces.Kerkennaise is made of capers, olive oil, tomato, scallions, coriander, caraway, cumin, parsley, garlic, white vinegar and paprika.Mloukhia is a dark green sauce served with shredded lamb or beef.
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