Tulips are spring-bloomingperennial herbaceousbulbiferousgeophytes in theTulipagenus. Theirflowers are usually large, showy, and brightly coloured, generally red, orange, pink, yellow, or white. They often have a different coloured blotch at the base of thetepals, internally. Because of a degree of variability within the populations and a long history of cultivation,classification has been complex and controversial. The tulip is a member of the lilyfamily,Liliaceae,[2] along with 14 other genera, where it is most closely related toAmana,Erythronium, andGagea in the tribeLilieae.
There are about 75species, and these are divided among foursubgenera. The name "tulip" is thought to be derived from aPersian word forturban, which it may have been thought to resemble by those who discovered it.[3] Tulips were originally found in a band stretching from Southern Europe to Central Asia, but since the seventeenth century have become widelynaturalised and cultivated (see map). In their natural state, they are adapted tosteppes andmountainous areas withtemperate climates. Flowering in the spring, they become dormant in the summer once the flowers and leaves die back, emerging above ground as a shoot from the underground bulb in early spring.
Growing wild over much of theNear East and Central Asia, tulips had probably been cultivated inPersia from the 10th century. By the 15th century, tulips were among the most prized flowers; becoming the symbol of the later Ottomans. Tulips were cultivated inByzantine Constantinople as early as 1055 but they did not come to the attention of Northern Europeans until the sixteenth century, when Northern European diplomats to theOttoman court observed and reported on them.[4] They were rapidly introduced into Northern Europe and became the subject of aninvestment bubble during the Dutchtulip mania of 1634–1637. Tulips were frequently depicted inDutch Golden Age paintings, and have become associated with theNetherlands, the major producer for world markets, ever since.
In the seventeenth-century Netherlands, during the time of the tulip mania, an infection of tulip bulbs by thetulip breaking virus createdvariegated patterns in the tulip flowers that were much admired and valued. While truly broken tulips are not cultivated anymore, the closest available specimens today are part of the group known as the Rembrandts – so named becauseRembrandt painted some of the most admired breaks of his time.[5]
Breeding programmes have produced thousands ofhybrid andcultivars in addition to the original species (known in horticulture as botanical tulips). They are popular throughout the world, both asornamental garden plants and ascut flowers.
Tulips are perennialherbaceous bulbiferousgeophytes that bloom in spring and die back after flowering to an underground storagebulb. A bulb can be as much as 5 cm (2 inches) in diameter or as small as 1 cm (0.4 in).[6]
Tulip stems have few leaves. Larger species tend to have multiple leaves. Plants typically have two to six leaves, some species up to 12. The tulip's leaf iscauline (born on a stem), strap-shaped, with a waxy coating, and the leaves are alternate (alternately arranged on the stem), diminishing in size the further up the stem. These fleshy blades are often bluish-green in colour.[7][8][9] The bulbs are truncated basally and elongated towards the apex. They are covered by a protective tunic (tunicate) which can beglabrous or hairy inside.[10][9] Depending on the species, tulip leaves are typically 10 and 25 cm (4 and 10 inches) long, but in some species reach over 30 cm (12 in).[6]
The tulip's flowers are usually large and areactinomorphic (radially symmetric) andhermaphrodite (contain both male (androecium) and female (gynoecium) characteristics), generally erect, or more rarelypendulous, and are arranged more usually as a single terminal flower, or whenpluriflor as two to three (e.g.Tulipa turkestanica), but up to four, flowers on the end of afloriferousstem (scape), which is single arising from amongst the basal leaf rosette.
In structure, the flower is generally cup or star-shaped. As with other members ofLiliaceae theperianth is undifferentiated (perigonium) and biseriate (twowhorled), formed from six free (i.e.apotepalous)caducoustepals arranged into two separate whorls of three parts (trimerous) each. The two whorls represent threepetals and threesepals but are termed tepals because they are nearly identical. The tepals are usually petaloid (petal-like), being brightly coloured, but each whorl may be different, or have different coloured blotches at their bases, forming darker colouration on the interior surface. The inner petals have a small, delicate cleft at the top, while the sturdier outer ones form uninterrupted ovals.[5]
The flowers have six distinct, basifixedintrorsestamens arranged in two whorls of three, which vary in length and may be glabrous or hairy. The filaments are shorter than the tepals and dilated towards their base.[10] The style is short or absent and eachstigma has three distinct lobes, and theovaries are superior, with three chambers.[10]
Tulip flowers come in a wide variety of colours - reds, yellows, purples, white - except pure blue (several tulips with "blue" in the name have a faint violet hue), and do not havenectaries.[7][8][9][10] The colour of a tulip is formed from two pigments working in concert; a base colour that is always yellow or white, and a second anthocyanin colour. The mix of these two hues determines the visible unitary colour. The breaking of flowers occurs when a virus suppresses anthocyanin production and the base colour is exposed as a streak.[5]
While tulips can be bred for many of colours, black tulips have historically been difficult to achieve. The Queen of the Night tulip is close to black, though it is a dark and glossy maroonish purple.[5] The first truly black tulip was bred in 1986 by a Dutch flower grower inBovenkarspel, Netherlands. It was created by cross-breeding two deep purple tulips, the Queen of the Night and Wienerwald tulips.[11]
The "Semper Augustus" was the most expensive tulip during the 17th-centurytulip mania. After seeing the tulip in the garden of Dr. Adriaen Pauw, a director of the newEast India Company, Nicolas van Wassenaer wrote in 1624 that "The colour is white, with Carmine on a blue base, and with an unbroken flame right to the top". With limited specimens in existence at the time and most owned by Pauw, his refusal to sell any flowers, despite wildly escalating offers, is believed by some to have sparked the mania.[5]
The tulip's fruit is aglobose orellipsoidcapsule with a leathery covering and an ellipsoid to globe shape. Each capsule contains numerous flat, disc-shapedseeds in two rows per chamber.[12] These light to dark brown seeds have very thin seed coats andendosperm that do not normally fill the entire seed.[13][10]
Tulipanin is ananthocyanin found in tulips. It is the 3-rutinoside ofdelphinidin. Tuliposides and tulipalins can also be found in tulips and are responsible for allergies.[14]Tulipalin A, or α-methylene-γ-butyrolactone, is a commonallergen, generated by hydrolysis of the glucoside tuliposide A. It induces adermatitis that is mostly occupational and affects tulip bulb sorters andflorists who cut the stems and leaves.[15] Tulipanin A and B are toxic to horses, cats and dogs.[16]
The great majority of tulips, both species and cultivars, have no discernable scent, but a few of both are scented to a degree, andAnna Pavord describesT. hungarica as "strongly scented",[17] and among cultivars, some such as "Monte Carlo" and "Brown Sugar" are "scented", and "Creme Upstar" "fragrant".[18]
The wordtulip, first mentioned in western Europe in or around 1554 and seemingly derived from the "Turkish Letters" of diplomatOgier Ghiselin de Busbecq, first appeared in English astulipa ortulipant, entering the language by way of French:tulipe and its obsolete formtulipan or by way of Modern Latintulipa, fromOttoman Turkishtülbend ("muslin" or "gauze"), and may be ultimately derived from thePersian:دلبندdelband ("Turban"), this name being applied because of a perceived resemblance of the shape of a tulip flower to that of a turban.[19] This may have been due to a translation error in early times when it was fashionable in the Ottoman Empire to wear tulips on turbans. The translator possibly confused the flower for the turban.[9]
Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq stated that the "Turks" used the wordtulipan to describe the flower. Extensive speculation has tried to understand why he would state this, given that the Turkish word for tulip islale. It is from this speculation thattulipan being a translation error referring to turbans is derived. This etymology has been challenged and makes no assumptions about possible errors. At no point does Busbecq state this was the word used inTurkey, he simply states it was used by the "Turks". On his way to Constantinople Busbecq states he travelled throughHungary and used Hungarian guides. Until recent times "Turk" was a common term when referring to Hungarians. The wordtulipan is in fact the Hungarian word for tulip. As long as one recognizes "Turk" as a reference to Hungarians, no amount of speculation is required to reconcile the word's origin or form. Busbecq may have been simply repeating the word used by his "Turk/Hungarian" guides.[20]
The Hungarian wordtulipan may be adopted from an Indo-Aryan reference to the tulip as a symbol of resurrection,tala meaning "bottom or underworld" andpAna meaning "defence".[20] Prior to arriving in Europe the Hungarians, and other Finno-Ugrians, embraced the Indo-Iranian cult of the dead, Yima/Yama, and would have been familiar with all of its symbols including the tulip.[21]
While authorities have stated that no tulips west of the Balkans are native,[23] subsequent identification ofTulipa sylvestris subsp.australis as a native of theIberian Peninsula and adjacent North Africa shows that this may be a simplification. In addition to these regions in the west tulips have been identified in Greece, Cyprus and theBalkans. In the south, Iran marks its furthest extent, while the northern limit is Ukraine.[24] Although tulips are also throughout most of the Mediterranean and Europe, these regions do not form part of the natural distribution. Tulips were brought to Europe by travellers and merchants fromAnatolia and Central Asia for cultivation, from where they escaped and naturalised (see map). For instance, less than half of those species found in Turkey are actually native.[23] These have been referred to as neo-tulipae.[25][26][9]
Tulips are indigenous tomountainous areas withtemperate climates, where they are a common element ofsteppe and winter-rainMediterranean vegetation. They thrive in climates with long, cool springs and dry summers. Tulips are most commonly found inmeadows,steppes andchaparral, but also introduced in fields, orchards, roadsides and abandoned gardens.[25][9]
The fungusTrichoderma viride can infect tulips, producing dried leaf tips and reduced growth,[29] although symptoms are usually mild and only present on bulbs growing inglasshouses.[citation needed]
Variegated tulips admired during the Dutchtulipomania gained their delicately feathered patterns from an infection with thetulip breaking virus, amosaic virus that was carried by thegreen peach aphid,Myzus persicae. While the virus produces fantastically streaked flowers, it also weakens plants and reduces the number of offsets produced. Dutch growers would go to extraordinary lengths during tulipomania to make tulips break, borrowing alchemists' techniques and resorting to sprinkling paint powders of the desired hue or pigeon droppings onto flower roots.[5] Tulips affected by the mosaic virus are called "broken"; while such plants can occasionally revert to a plain or solid colouring, they will remain infected and have to be destroyed. Today the virus is almost eradicated from tulip growers' fields. The multicoloured patterns of modern varieties result from breeding; they normally have solid, un-feathered borders between the colours.
Tulip growth is also dependent on temperature conditions. Slightly germinated plants show greater growth if subjected to a period of cool dormancy, known asvernalisation. Furthermore, although flower development is induced at warmer temperatures (20–25 °C or 68–77 °F), elongation of the flower stalk and proper flowering is dependent on an extended period of low temperature (< 10 °C or 50 °F).[30] Tulip bulbs imported to warm-winter areas are often planted in autumn to be treated as annuals. The colour of tulip flowers also varies with growing conditions.[31]
Cultivation of the tulip began inIran (Persia), probably in the 10th century.[9] Early cultivars must have emerged from hybridisation in gardens from wild collected plants, which were then favoured, possibly due to flower size or growth vigour. The tulip is not mentioned by any writer from antiquity,[33] therefore it seems probable that tulips were introduced into Anatolia only with the advance of theSeljuks.[33] In theOttoman Empire, numerous types of tulips were cultivated and bred,[34] and today, 14 species can still be found in Turkey.[33] Tulips are mentioned byOmar Kayam andJalāl ad-Dīn Rûmi.[33] Species of tulips in Turkey typically come in red, less commonly in white or yellow. The Ottoman Turks had discovered that these wild tulips were great changelings, freely hybridizing (though it takes 7 years to show colour) but also subject to mutations that produced spontaneous changes in form and colour.[5]
A paper by Arthur Baker[35] reports that in 1574, SultanSelim II ordered the Kadi ofA'azāz in Syria to send him 50,000 tulip bulbs. However, John Harvey[36] points out several problems with this source, and there is also the possibility that tulips andhyacinth (sümbüll), originally Indianspikenard (Nardostachys jatamansi) have been confused. Sultan Selim also imported 300,000 bulbs ofKefe Lale (also known as Cafe-Lale, from the medieval name Kaffa, probablyTulipa suaveolens, syn.Tulipa schrenkii) fromKefe inCrimea, for his gardens in theTopkapı Sarayı inIstanbul.[37]
It is also reported that shortly after arriving in Constantinople in 1554, Ogier Ghislain de Busbecq, ambassador of the Austrian Habsburgs to the court of Suleyman the Magnificent, claimed to have introduced the tulip to Europe by sending a consignment of bulbs west. The fact that the tulip's first official trip west took it from one court to the other could have contributed to its ascendency.[5]
SultanAhmet III maintained famous tulip gardens in the summer highland pastures (Yayla) atSpil Dağı above the town ofManisa.[38] They seem to have consisted of wild tulips. However, of the 14 tulip species known from Turkey, only four are considered to be of local origin,[39] so wild tulips from Iran and Central Asia may have been brought into Turkey during the Seljuk and especially Ottoman periods. Also, Sultan Ahmet imported domestic tulip bulbs from the Netherlands.
The gardening bookRevnak'ı Bostan (Beauty of the Garden) by Sahibül Reisülhaç Ibrahim Ibn ülhaç Mehmet, written in 1660 does not mention the tulip at all, but contains advice on growing hyacinths andlilies.[40] However, there is considerable confusion of terminology, and tulips may have been subsumed under hyacinth, a mistake several European botanists were to perpetuate. In 1515, the scholarQasim fromHerat in contrast had identified both wild and garden tulips (lale) asanemones (shaqayq al-nu'man) but described thecrown imperial aslaleh kakli.[40]
In aTurkic text written before 1495, theChagatayHusayn Bayqarah mentions tulips (lale).[41]Babur, the founder of theMughal Empire, also names tulips in theBaburnama.[42] He may actually have introduced them fromAfghanistan to the plains of India, as he did with other plants like melons and grapes.[43] The tulip represents the official symbol of Turkey.[44] In MoorishAndalus, a "Makedonian bulb" (basal al-maqdunis) or "bucket-Narcissus" (naryis qadusi) was cultivated as an ornamental plant in gardens. It was supposed to have come fromAlexandria and may have beenTulipa sylvestris, but the identification is not wholly secure.[45]
Tulip cultivation in the NetherlandsTheKeukenhof inLisse, Netherlands
Although it is unknown who first brought the tulip to Northwestern Europe, the most widely accepted story is that it wasOghier Ghislain de Busbecq, an ambassador forEmperor Ferdinand I toSuleyman the Magnificent. According to a letter, he saw "an abundance of flowers everywhere;Narcissus,hyacinths and those in Turkish called Lale, much to our astonishment because it was almost midwinter, a season unfriendly to flowers."[46][47] However, in 1559, an account byConrad Gessner describes tulips flowering inAugsburg,Swabia in the garden of Councillor Heinrich Herwart.[48] In Central and Northern Europe, tulip bulbs are generally removed from the ground in June and must be replanted by September for the winter.[citation needed] It is doubtful that Busbecq could have had the tulip bulbs harvested, shipped to Germany and replanted between March 1558 and Gessner's description the following year.Pietro Andrea Mattioli illustrated a tulip in 1565 but identified it as a narcissus.
Carolus Clusius is largely responsible for the spread of tulip bulbs in the final years of the 16th century; he planted tulips at the Vienna Imperial Botanical Gardens in 1573. He finished the first major work on tulips in 1592 and made note of the colour variations. After he was appointed the director of theLeiden University's newly establishedHortus Botanicus, he planted both a teaching garden and his private garden with tulips in late 1593. Thus, 1594 is considered the date of the tulip's first flowering in the Netherlands, despite reports of the cultivation of tulips in private gardens inAntwerp andAmsterdam two or three decades earlier. These tulips at Leiden would eventually lead to both thetulip mania and the tulip industry in the Netherlands.[49] Over two raids, in 1596 and in 1598, more than one hundred bulbs were stolen from his garden.
Tulips spread rapidly across Europe, and more opulent varieties such as double tulips were already known in Europe by the early 17th century. These curiosities fitted well in an age when natural oddities were cherished especially in the Netherlands, France, Germany and England, where the spice trade with the East Indies had made many people wealthy.Nouveaux riches seeking wealthy displays embraced the exotic plant market, especially in the Low Countries where gardens had become fashionable. A craze for bulbs soon grew in France, where in the early 17th century, entire properties were exchanged as payment for a single tulip bulb. The value of the flower gave it an aura of mystique, and numerous publications describing varieties in lavish garden manuals were published, cashing in on the value of the flower. An export business was built up in France, supplying Dutch, Flemish, German and English buyers. The trade drifted slowly from the French to the Dutch.[50]
Between 1634 and 1637, the enthusiasm for the new flowers in Holland triggered aspeculative frenzy now known as thetulip mania that eventually led to the collapse of the market three years later. Tulip bulbs had become so expensive that they were treated as a form of currency, or rather, as futures, forcing the Dutch government to introduce trading restrictions on the bulbs.[50] Around this time, theceramictulipiere was devised for the display of cut flowers stem by stem. Vases and bouquets, usually including tulips, often appeared inDutch still-life painting. To this day, tulips are associated with the Netherlands, and the cultivated forms of the tulip are often called "Dutch tulips". The Netherlands has the world's largest permanent display of tulips at theKeukenhof. The majority of tulip cultivars are classified in the taxonTulipa gesneriana. They have usually several species in their direct background, but most have been derived fromTulipa suaveolens.Tulipa gesneriana is in itself an early hybrid of complex origin and is probably not the same taxon as was described by Conrad Gessner in the 16th century.[9][51] The UK'sNational Collection of English florists' tulips and Dutch historic tulips, dating from the early 17th century to c. 1960, is held by Polly Nicholson atBlackland House, nearCalne in Wiltshire.[52]
It is believed the first tulips in the United States were grown nearSpring Pond at the Fay Estate inLynn andSalem, Massachusetts. From 1847 to 1865, Richard Sullivan Fay, Esq., one of Lynn's wealthiest men, settled on 500 acres (2 km2; 202 ha) located partly in present-day Lynn and partly in present-day Salem. Mr. Fay imported many different trees and plants from all parts of the world and planted them among the meadows of the Fay Estate.[53]
In 1945 theDutch royal family sent 100,000 tulip bulbs to Ottawa in gratitude for Canadians having sheltered the futureQueen Juliana and her family for the preceding three years during theNazi occupation of the Netherlands.[55][56] In 1946 Juliana sent another 20,500 bulbs requesting that a display be created for the hospital, and promised to send 10,000 more bulbs each year. By 1963 theCanadian Tulip Festival featured more than 2 million tulips, rising to nearly 3 million by 1995.[54]
TheNetherlands is the world's main producer of commercial tulip plants, producing as many as 3 billion bulbs annually, the majority for export.[57]
"Unlike many flower species, tulips do not produce nectar to entice insect pollination. Instead, tulips rely on wind and land animals to move their pollen between reproductive organs. Because they are self-pollinating, they do not need the pollen to move several feet to another plant but only within their blossoms."[58]
Tulips can be propagated through bulboffsets,seeds ormicropropagation.[59] Offsets andtissue culture methods are means ofasexual propagation for producinggeneticclones of the parent plant, which maintainscultivar genetic integrity. Seeds are most often used to propagatespecies andsubspecies or to create newhybrids. Many tulip species cancross-pollinate with each other, and when wild tulip populations overlap geographically with other tulip species or subspecies, they often hybridise and create mixed populations. Most commercial tulip cultivars are complex hybrids, and oftensterile.
Offsets require a year or more of growth before plants are large enough to flower. Tulips grown from seeds often need five to eight years before plants are of flowering size. To prevent cross-pollination, increase the growth rate of bulbs and increase the vigour and size of offsets, the flower and stems of a field of commercial tulips are usuallytopped using large tractor-mounted mowing heads. The same goals can be achieved by a private gardener by clipping the stem and flower of an individual specimen. Commercial growers usually harvest the tulip bulbs in late summer and grade them into sizes; bulbs large enough to flower are sorted and sold, while smaller bulbs are sorted into sizes and replanted for sale in the future.
Because tulip bulbs do not reliably come back every year, tulip varieties that fall out of favour with present aesthetic values have traditionally gone extinct. Unlike other flowers that do not suffer this same limitation, the tulip's historical forms do not survive alongside their modern incarnations.[5]
'Gavota', a division 3 cultivar'Yonina', a division 6 cultivar'Texas Flame', a division 10 cultivar'Dance Line', a division 11 cultivar
In horticulture, tulips are divided into fifteen groups (Divisions) mostly based on flower morphology and plant size.[60][61]
Div. 1: Single early – with cup-shaped single flowers, no larger than 8 cm (3 inches) across. They bloom early to mid-season. Growing 15 to 45 cm (6 to 18 inches) tall.
Div. 2: Double early – with fully double flowers, bowl shaped to 8 cm (3 inches) across. Plants typically grow from 30–40 cm (12–16 inches) tall.
Div. 3: Triumph – single, cup shaped flowers up to 6 cm (2.5 inches) wide. Plants grow 35–60 cm (14–24 inches) tall and bloom mid to late season.
Div. 4: Darwin hybrid – single flowers are ovoid in shape and up to 6 cm (2.5 inches) wide. Plants grow 50–70 cm (20–28 inches) tall and bloom mid to late season. This group should not be confused with older Darwin tulips, which belong in the Single Late Group below.
Div. 5: Single late – cup or goblet-shaped flowers up to 8 cm (3 inches) wide, some plants produce multi-flowering stems. Plants grow 45–75 cm (18–30 inches) tall and bloom late season.
Div. 6: Lily-flowered – the flowers possess a distinct narrow 'waist' with pointed and reflexed petals. Previously included with the old Darwins, only became a group in their own right in 1958.[62]
Div. 7: Fringed (Crispa) – cup or goblet-shaped blossoms edged with spiked or crystal-like fringes, sometimes called "tulips for touch" because of the temptation to "test" the fringes to see if they are real or made of glass. Perennials with a tendency to naturalize in woodland areas, growing 45–65 cm (18–26 inches) tall and blooming in late season.
Div. 8: Viridiflora
Div. 9: Rembrandt
Div. 10: Parrot
Div. 11: Double late – Large, heavy blooms. They range from 46 to 56 cm (18 to 22 inches) tall.
Div. 12:Kaufmanniana – Waterlily tulip. Medium-large creamy yellow flowers marked red on the outside and yellow at the centre. Stems 15 cm (6 inches) tall.
Div. 14:Greigii – Scarlet flowers 15 cm (6 inches) across, on 15-centimetre (6 in) stems. Foliage mottled with brown.[63]
Div. 15: Species or Botanical – The terms "species tulips" and "botanical tulips" refer to wild species in contrast to hybridised varieties.[64] As a group they have been described as being less ostentatious but more reliably vigorous as they age.[65][66]
Div. 16: Multiflowering – not an official division, these tulips belong in the first 15 divisions but are often listed separately because they have multiple blooms per bulb.
They may also be classified by their flowering season:[67]
Early flowering: Single Early Tulips, Double Early Tulips, Greigii Tulips, Kaufmanniana Tulips, Fosteriana Tulips,§ Species tulips
Mid-season flowering: Darwin Hybrid Tulips, Triumph Tulips,Parrot Tulips
Late season flowering: Single Late Tulips, Double Late Tulips, Viridiflora Tulips, Lily-flowering Tulips, Fringed (Crispa) Tulips, Rembrandt Tulips
A number of names are based on naturalised garden tulips and are usually referred to as neo-tulipae. These are often difficult to trace back to their original cultivar, and in some cases have been occurring in the wild for many centuries. The history of naturalisation is unknown, but populations are usually associated with agricultural practices and are possibly linked tosaffron cultivation[clarification needed]. Some neo-tulipae have been brought into cultivation, and are often offered as botanical tulips. These cultivated plants can be classified into two Cultivar Groups: 'Grengiolensis Group', with picotee tepals, and the 'Didieri Group' with unicolorous tepals.
Tulip bulbs are typically planted around late summer and fall, in well-drained soils. Tulips should be planted 10 to 15 cm (4 to 6 inches) apart from each other. The recommended hole depth is 10 to 20 cm (4 to 8 inches) deep and is measured from the top of the bulb to the surface. Therefore, larger tulip bulbs would require deeper holes. Species of tulips are normally planted deeper.[citation needed]
As with other plants of the lily family, tulips are poisonous to domestic animals including horses, cats, and dogs.[16] In cats, ingestion of small amounts of tulips can cause vomiting, depression, diarrhoea,hypersalivation, and irritation of the mouth and throat, and larger amounts can cause abdominal pain, tremors,tachycardia, convulsions,tachypnea, difficulty breathing,cardiac arrhythmia, and coma. All parts of the tulip plant are poisonous to cats, while the bulb is especially dangerous. A veterinarian should be contacted immediately if a cat has ingested tulip.[68] In the American East,white-tailed deer eat tulips[69] with no apparent ill effects.
Humans generally do not eat tulip bulbs, as they are slow to cultivate and safe preparation practices are not widely known. Although they resemble onions and are occasionally cooked as such, this has led to illness.[70] In the Netherlands they were used as anersatz ingredient andpoverty food during thefamine of 1944–45, and some chefs continue to offer them as a delicacy. Removal of the germ (the young stem) is an important preparation step.[71][72] People who handle tulip bulbs extensively can developcontact dermatitis, known as "tulip fingers", caused by the defensive chemicaltulipalin A.[70] The petals areedible to humans, as are the leaves, although some people are allergic.[73][74]
The celebration of Persian New Year, orNowruz, dating back over 3,000 years, marks the advent of spring, and tulips are used as a decorative feature during the festivities.[75]
The 12th century Persian tragic romance,Khosrow and Shirin, similar to the tale ofRomeo and Juliet, tells of tulips sprouting where the blood of the young prince Farhad spilt after he killed himself upon hearing the (deliberately false) story that his true love had died.[75]
The tulip was a topic for Persian poets from the thirteenth century. The poemGulistan byMusharrifu'd-din Saadi, described a visionary garden paradise with "The murmur of a cool stream / bird song, ripe fruit in plenty / bright multicoloured tulips and fragrant roses...".[76] In recent times, tulips have featured in the poems ofSimin Behbahani.[citation needed]
The word for tulip inPersian is "laleh" (لاله), and this has become popular as a girl's name.[77] The name has been used for commercial enterprises, such as the Laleh International Hotel, as well as public facilities, such asLaleh Park[75] and Laleh Hospital,[78] and the tulipmotif remains common in Iranian culture.[75]
Tulips are calledlale inTurkish (from thePersian:لاله,romanized: laleh fromلالlal 'red').[79] When written in Arabic letters,lale has the same letters asAllah, which is why the flower became a holy symbol. It was also associated with the House ofOsman, resulting in tulips being widely used in decorative motifs on tiles, mosques, fabrics, crockery, etc. in theOttoman Empire.[9] The tulip was seen as a symbol of abundance and indulgence. The era during which the Ottoman Empire was wealthiest is often called theTulip era orLale Devri inTurkish.
Tulips became popular garden plants in the east and west, but, whereas the tulip in Turkish culture was asymbol ofparadise on earth and had almost a divine status, in the Netherlands it represented the briefness of life.[9]
In Christianity, tulips symbolise passion, belief and love. White tulips represent forgiveness while purple tulips represent royalty, both important aspects of Easter.[citation needed] InCalvinism, the five points of the doctrines of grace have been summarized under theacrostic TULIP.[80][81]
By contrast to other flowers such as theconeflower orlotus flower, tulips have historically been capable of genetically reinventing themselves to suit changes in aesthetic values. In his 1597 herbal, John Gerard says of the tulip that "nature seems to play more with this flower than with any other that I do know". When in the Netherlands, beauty was defined by marbled swirls of vivid contrasting colours, the petals of tulips were able to become "feathered" and "flamed". However, in the 19th century, when the English desired tulips for carpet bedding and massing, the tulips were able to once again accommodate this by evolving into "paint-filled boxes with the brightest, fattest dabs of pure pigment". This inherent mutability of the tulip even led the Ottoman Turks to believe that nature cherished this flower above all others.[5]
The Dutch regarded the flower's lack of scent as a virtue, representing chasteness.[5]The Black Tulip (1850) is a historical romance byAlexandre Dumas, père. The story takes place in the Dutch city ofHaarlem, where a reward is offered to the first grower who can produce a truly black tulip.[82]
The tulip occurs on a number of theMajor Arcana cards of occultistOswald Wirth's deck ofTarot cards, specifically the Magician, Emperor, Temperance and the Fool, described in his 1927 workLe Tarot, des Imagiers du Moyen Âge.[83][84]
^Christensen, L. P.; Kristiansen, K. (1999). "Isolation and quantification of tuliposides and tulipalins in tulips (Tulipa) by high-performance liquid chromatography".Contact Dermatitis.40 (6):300–9.doi:10.1111/j.1600-0536.1999.tb06080.x.PMID10385332.S2CID19973741.
^Sasseville, D (2009). "Dermatitis from plants of the new world".European Journal of Dermatology.19 (5):423–30.doi:10.1684/ejd.2009.0714.PMID19487175.
^Le Nard, M.; Biot, E. (1997). "Measurement of Colour Variation of Tulip Flowers Grown in Different Conditions".Acta Horticulturae.10 (430):837–842.doi:10.17660/ActaHortic.1997.430.133.
^Annette Susanne Beveridge, Babur-nama (Memoirs of Babur). Translated from the original Turki text of Zahiru'd-din Muhammad Babur Padsha Ghazo. Delhi 1921 (Reprint Low Price Publications 1989 in einem Band,ISBN81-85395-07-1, 686
^Nishiuchi, Y. (1986). "Multiplication of Tulip Bulb by Tissue Culturein vitro".ISHS Acta Horticulturae.177 (177):279–284.doi:10.17660/ActaHortic.1986.177.40.
^Lawson, Steven (18 March 2019)."TULIP and The Doctrines of Grace".Ligonier Ministries.Archived from the original on 21 January 2021. Retrieved5 August 2021.In reality, these five doctrines of grace form one comprehensive body of truth concerning salvation.
^Sproul, R. C. (2016).What Is Reformed Theology?: Understanding the Basics. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books. p. 32.ISBN978-0-8010-1846-6.
Clusius, Carolus (1951).A Treatise on Tulips. Translated by W. van Dijk. Haarlem: Associated Bulb Growers of Holland. (Translation of a section from theRariorum plantarum historia, 1601: seeClusius (1601))
Eker, İsmail; Babaç, Mehmet Tekin; Koyuncu, Mehmet (29 January 2014). "Revision of the genus Tulipa L. (Liliaceae) in Turkey".Phytotaxa.157 (1): 001.doi:10.11646/phytotaxa.157.1.1.
Harvey, John H. (1976). "Turkey as a Source of Garden Plants".Garden History.4 (3):24–42.doi:10.2307/1586521.JSTOR1586521.
Turktas, Mine; Metin, Özge Karakaş; Baştuğ, Berk; Ertuğrul, Fahriye; et al. (July 2013). "Molecular phylogenetic analysis ofTulipa (Liliaceae) based on noncoding plastid and nuclear DNA sequences with an emphasis on Turkey".Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society.172 (3):270–279.doi:10.1111/boj.12040.
.jpg)
_(8447528823).jpg)
_(cropped).jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
_(5282772890).jpg)
.JPG)
