 | This article'slead sectionmay be too long. Please read thelength guidelines and helpmove details into the article's body.(August 2025) (Learn how and when to remove this message) |
Tsuchigumo (土蜘蛛; also written 土雲, literally "dirt/earth spider") is a historical Japanese derogatory term for renegade local clans, primarily during the Asuka, Nara, and early Heian periods, and also the name for a race of spider-likeyōkai inJapanese folklore. Alternative names for the historical groups includekuzu (国栖),[1] and for the mythologicalTsuchigumo,yatsukahagi (八握脛; roughly "eight-grasp shins," referring to their long legs)[2] andōgumo (大蜘蛛; "giant spider").[3] In theKojiki andNihon Shoki, the name was phonetically spelled with the four kanji都知久母 (for the four moraetsu-chi-gu-mo).[4] References to "tsuchigumo" appear in the chronicles associated withEmperor Jimmu,Emperor Keiko, andEmpress Jingū, and these words were frequently used in theFudoki (ancient reports on provincial culture, geography, and oral tradition) of various provinces, includingMutsu,Echigo,Hitachi,Settsu,Bungo, andHizen.[1][4]
The term "Tsuchigumo" (earth/dirt spider) is believed to be derived from an older derogatory term,tuchigomori (土隠), meaning "those who hide in the ground".[5][6] This name likely referred to the fact that many of these clans utilized existing cave systems or built fortified dugouts and earthworks (Japanese: 土窟; tsuchi-muro or iwa-muro) in which to live and defend themselves.[1] The term was used by the Yamato court as a generalized pejorative against chieftains and clans who would not submit to Imperial authority, regardless of their ancestry or location. They were often described in official records like theNihon Shoki and variousFudoki as possessing "the nature of a wolf, the heart of an owl", being violently resistant, and dwelling in mountain caves or earthen fortifications.[1] Some descriptions portrayed them as having abnormal physical characteristics; the "Jimmu" chapter of theNihon Shoki describes them as "short in stature but long in limbs, similar to pygmies (侏儒)", while an excerpt from the lostEchigo Fudoki mentions Tsuchigumo with "shins eight 'tsuka' [hand-breadths] long, and possessing great strength."[1] These descriptions likely served to dehumanize these groups and emphasize their "otherness" from the perspective of the Yamato state.
Historian Sōkichi Tsuda (ja) pointed out that, unlike terms likeKumaso andEmishi which referred to distinct groups, "Tsuchigumo" as used in theFudoki often appears as the designation for specific individuals rather than entire peoples.[1] Historian Yoshiyuki Takioto (ja) further suggests that these individuals were likely local chieftains whose power stemmed from shamanistic authority. This is supported by accounts in the KyushuFudoki where certain Tsuchigumo figures appear as priests or mediums involved in agricultural rituals or appeasing angered deities (kami).[1]
The transformation of the Tsuchigumo into a monstrous, giant spider-likeyōkai occurred during the Japanese medieval period (late 12th to early 17th centuries). One of the earliest and most influential depictions is found in variant texts ofThe Tale of the Heike, particularly the "Sword Scroll" (tsurugi-no-maki), which was compiled in the early 13th century. In this version, the creature is called ayamagumo (山蜘蛛, "mountain spider"), and its defeat by the heroMinamoto no Yorimitsu gives rise to the legend of his sword, Kumo-kiri ("Spider-Cutter").[7][8] As depictions evolved through later periods, the Tsuchigumo became increasingly bizarre and monstrous.[9] The 14th-centuryemakimono (picture scroll)Tsuchigumo Sōshi portrays it as a colossal monster, and stories involving its extermination often feature Yorimitsu and his legendary retainerWatanabe no Tsuna, heroes also famous for defeating the powerfuloniShuten-dōji.[10] The yōkai Tsuchigumo became a popular subject inNoh theatre,Jōruri puppet plays, andKabuki.[6] It's important to note that the historical Tsuchigumo have no direct connection to the actual ground spider speciesJigumo (Antrodiaetus japonicus).[11] Similarly, the modern Japanese common name fortarantulas (Ōtsuchigumo-ka, オオツチグモ科,Theraphosidae) was inspired by the mythological creature but has no historical link, as tarantulas are not native to Japan.
References to Tsuchigumo appear across Japan, indicating the term was applied to various local powers resisting Yamato authority. Historical records mention Tsuchigumo in at least seven locations in Hitachi province, six in Bungo, twelve in Hizen, two in Mutsu, and one in Hyūga, primarily in Kyushu, Tōhoku, and Kantō regions.[12] Around 45 individual chieftain names associated with Tsuchigumo are recorded, among which 14 include titles like "me" (女, woman), "hime" (姫/媛, princess), suggesting female leadership was not uncommon, particularly in Hizen.[12] Examples include Ōyamada-me (大山田女), Sayamada-me (狭山田女), Yasome (八十女), and Hayakitsu-hime (速来津姫).[13][14][15] TheHitachi no Kuni Fudoki explicitly states that "Kuzu" and "Tsuchigumo" were synonymous terms in that region.[1]
The Tsuchigumo of theKatsuragi region in Yamato Province (modern Nara Prefecture) are particularly well-known. According to theNihon Shoki, Emperor Jimmu defeated several Tsuchigumo groups during his eastward expedition. These included figures named Niki Tobe (新城戸畔) at Hataoka-no-saki, Kose Hafuri (居勢祝) at Wani-no-saka-no-shita, and Ihafuri (猪祝) at Hetsugi-no-nagae-no-oka-no-saki. He is also said to have defeated Tsuchigumo at Takaowari village by weaving a net of katsura vines (葛), subsequently renaming the area Katsuragi (葛城).[16] The Tsuchigumo of Takaowari were described as having small bodies and long limbs.[16]Katsuragi Hitokotonushi Shrine (葛城一言主神社) features a "Tsuchigumo塚" (tsuka, mound), said to be where Jimmu buried the head, body, and feet of captured Tsuchigumo separately to prevent their vengeful spirits (onryō) from harming the living.[17]
A unique physical characteristic attributed to the indigenous people of Yamato in early chronicles was the possession of tails. TheNihon Shoki describes the ancestor of the Yoshino no Futo (吉野首) clan as "glowing, with a tail", and the ancestor of the Yoshino no Kuzu (国樔) as "having a tail and pushing aside rocks".[16] Similarly, theKojiki refers to the people of Osaka (忍坂, modern Sakurai city) as "Tsuchigumo who have tails grown."[18] These descriptions likely served to portray the pre-Yamato inhabitants as non-human or primitive.
Several accounts detail conflicts during the reign of Emperor Keiko (traditionally 71–130 AD):
From theJapanese middle ages (Kamakura/Muromachi/Azuchi-Momoyama periods, or the late 12th to the early 17th centuries) onward,tsuchigumo began to be depicted as giant, monstrous spiders, often referred to as eithertsuchigumo (土蜘蛛) oryamagumo (山蜘蛛, mountain spider). These depictions drew little direct inspiration from the historical accounts of rebellious clans, instead developing into distinct folklore figures.
A key text in popularizing the Tsuchigumo yōkai isThe Tale of the Heike (Heike Monogatari). This work, passed down orally amongbiwa lute players, exists in numerous variants, including the expandedGenpei Jōsuiki. Some versions contain an extended passage on swords known as the"Sword Scroll" (tsurugi-no-maki). This scroll is regarded as one of the most important sources for the legend ofMinamoto no Yorimitsu (also known as Raikō) and the Tsuchigumo, influencing many later artistic representations.[7]
TheTsurugi-no-maki relates that Yorimitsu was suffering frommalaria (okori) when a strange monk, seven shaku (over 2 meters) tall, appeared and tried to bind him with rope. Despite his illness, Yorimitsu slashed at the monk with his famous sword,Hizamaru [ja]. The monk fled, leaving a trail of blood. The next day, Yorimitsu, accompanied by his four chief retainers (theShitennō), followed the blood trail to a mound behindKitano Shrine. There they discovered a giantyamagumo, four shaku (about 1.2 meters) across. They captured the spider, impaled it with an iron skewer, and exposed it by a riverbank. Yorimitsu subsequently recovered, and Hizamaru was renamedKumokiri (蜘蛛切; "Spider-Cutter") in honor of the event.[25][8][4] Today, several historicaltachi swords are claimed to be the legendary Hizamaru/Kumokiri, including ones held byDaikaku-ji Temple,Hakone Shrine, and a private collector. These swords also bear other names like 'Hoemaru' and 'Usumidori' based on associated legends.[26]
The 14th-century picture scrollTsuchigumo Sōshi (土蜘蛛草紙, "Tale of the Earth Spider") offers a different, more elaborate version of the legend. It depicts Yorimitsu and his retainerWatanabe no Tsuna visiting Rendaino, a burial ground north of Kyoto. They encounter a flying skull, follow it to a dilapidated mansion, and are assailed by various yōkai. Near dawn, a beautiful woman attempts to deceive them, but Yorimitsu strikes her with his sword. She vanishes, leaving a trail of white blood. Following the trail into the mountains, they discover a cave inhabited by a colossalyamagumo, described as 20 jō (approximately 60 meters) long. After a fierce battle, they slay the spider. Cutting open its belly reveals 1,990 human skulls, and numerous small spiders emerge from its flanks, along with another 20 smaller skulls.[27][10] Interestingly, the scroll's illustrations sometimes deviate from the text; while the narrative describes a giant spider as the main antagonist, some images depict Yorimitsu and Tsuna battling two largeoni resemblingGozu and Mezu, perhaps representing another transformation of the Tsuchigumo.[28]
The legend was adapted into the 15th-century Noh playTsuchigumo. In this version, the spider spirit explicitly identifies itself, stating "I am the spirit of the Tsuchigumo who has passed many years on Mount Katsuragi" (葛城山に年を経し土蜘蛛の精魂なり).[4] The Noh play, often categorized as a fifth-category (demon) play, solidified the image of the Tsuchigumo as a vengeful supernatural entity linked to Yorimitsu. Variations exist where Yorimitsu is incapacitated by illness, and one of his retainers hunts down the spider in his stead.
The story of Yorimitsu and the Tsuchigumo became a popular subject inJōruri andKabuki theatre, particularly in plays set in the "Zen-Taiheiki" world, which focused on the exploits of Yorimitsu and his Shitennō. The motif of a spider using magic influenced other tales featuring spider yōkai, such as theyamagumo inZentō Yasukata Chūgiden (善知安方忠義伝) and Kojorōgumo (小女郎蜘蛛) inShiraito Monogatari (白縫譚).
Due to the popularity of the yōkai tales, several locations in Japan have legends connecting them to the Tsuchigumo:
Media related toTsuchigumo at Wikimedia Commons
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)Reider2013 was invoked but never defined (see thehelp page).MurakamiJiten was invoked but never defined (see thehelp page).| Prehistoric | |||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ancient | |||||||||||||||||
| Post-classical | |||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||
