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True toad

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Family of amphibians

True toads
Temporal range: LatePaleocene – Recent[1]57–0 Ma
Cane toad (R. marina)
Scientific classificationEdit this classification
Kingdom:Animalia
Phylum:Chordata
Class:Amphibia
Order:Anura
Superfamily:Hyloidea
Family:Bufonidae
Gray, 1825
Genera
Over 35see text
Native distribution of Bufonidae (in black)
Song ofCommon toad or European toad,Bufo bufo.
Common toad,female andmale on her back.

Atrue toad is any member of thefamilyBufonidae, in the orderAnura (frogs and toads). This is the only family of anurans in which all members are known astoads, although some may be called frogs (such asharlequin frogs). The bufonids now comprise more than 35 genera,Bufo being the best known.

History

[edit]
American toad (Anaxyrus americanus)

Bufonidae is thought to have originated inSouth America. Some studies date the origin of the group to after the breakup ofGondwana, about 78–99 million years ago in theLate Cretaceous.[2] In contrast, other studies have dated the origin of the group to the early Paleocene.[3] The bufonids likely radiated out of South America during theEocene, with the entire radiation occurring during the Eocene to Oligocene, marking an extremely rapid divergence likely facilitated by the Paleogene's changing climatic conditions.[3]

Taxonomy

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The following phylogeny of most genera in the family is based on Portik and Papenfuss, 2015:,[4] Chanet al., 2016,[5] Chandramouliet al., 2016,[6] and Koket al., 2017[3]

Melanophryniscus

Ingerophrynus alongsideLeptophryne was grouped asbasal to the clade containing all otherSoutheast Asian toad genera andGhatophryne by Portik and Papenfuss, but was found to group withPhrynoidis andRentapia by Chanet al.Ghatophryne was grouped withPhrynoidis andRentapia by Portik and Papenfuss but was found to group withPelophryne andAnsonia by Chanet al. In addition,Sabahphrynus was grouped withStrauchbufo andBufo by Portik and Papenfuss but was found to group withPelophryne,Ansonia, andGhatophryne by Chanet al.

Characteristics

[edit]

True toads are widespread and are native to every continent exceptAustralia andAntarctica, inhabiting a variety of environments, from arid areas to rainforest. Most layeggs in paired strings that hatch intotadpoles, although, in the genusNectophrynoides, the eggs hatch directly into miniature toads.[1]

All true toads are toothless and generally warty in appearance. They have a pair ofparotoid glands on the back of their heads. These glands contain analkaloid poison which the toads excrete when stressed. The poison in the glands contains a number of toxins causing different effects.Bufotoxin is a general term. Different animals contain significantly different substances and proportions of substances. Some, like thecane toadRhinella marina, are more toxic than others. Some "psychoactive toads", such as theColorado River toadIncilius alvarius,[7] have been usedrecreationally for the effects of their bufotoxin.

Depending on the species, male or female toads may possess aBidder's organ, a trait unique to all bufonids except generaMelanophryniscus andTruebella.[8] Under the right conditions, the organ becomes an active ovary.[9]

The loss of teeth has arisen in frogs independently over 20 times. Notably, all members of Bufonidae are toothless. Another Anuran family with a comparable degree of edentulism is the family Microhylidae.[10]

Reproduction

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Internal fertilization occurs in four bufonid genera.[11]

Ascaphus (all species) andEleutherodactylus (two species,E. coqui andE. jasperi) are the only other frog genera that have internal fertilization.[11]Limnonectes larvaepartus also has internal fertilization.[12]

Taxonomy and genera

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The family Bufonidae contains over 570 species among 52 genera.

Genus name and authorCommon nameSpecies
AdenomusCope, 1861Dwarf toads
2
AltiphrynoidesDubois, 1987Ethiopian toads
2
AmazophrynellaFouquet et al., 2012
12
AnaxyrusTschudi, 1845
23
AnsoniaStoliczka, 1870Stream toads
34
AtelopusDuméril & Bibron, 1841Stubfoot toads
96
BarbarophryneBeukema, de Pous, Donaire-Barroso, Bogaerts, Garcia-Porta, Escoriza, Arribas, El Mouden, and Carranza, 2013 (1 sp.)Tiznit toad; Brongersma's toad
1
BlythophryneChandramouli et al., 2016[13]Andaman bush toads
1
BufoGarsault, 1764Toads
18
BufoidesPillai & Yazdani, 1973Mawblang toads; Rock toads
2
BufotesRafinesque, 1815Palearctic green toads
15
CapensibufoGrandison, 1980Cape toads
5
ChuramitiChanning & Stanley, 2002
1
DendrophryniscusJiménez de la Espada, 1871Tree toads
16
DidynamipusAndersson, 1903Four-digit toad
1
DuttaphrynusFrost et al., 2006Dutta's toads
23
EpidaleaCope, 1864Natterjack toad
1
FirouzophrynusSafaei-Mahroo and Ghaffari, 2020Firouz's toads
5
FrostiusCannatella, 1986Frost's toads
2
GhatophryneBiju, Van Bocxlaer, Giri, Loader, and Bossuyt, 2009
2
InciliusCope, 1863Central American toads; Middle American toads; Cerro Utyum toads
39
IngerophrynusFrost, Grant, Faivovich, Bain, Haas, Haddad, de Sá, Channing, Wilkinson, Donnellan, Raxworthy, Campbell, Blotto, Moler, Drewes, Nussbaum, Lynch, Green, and Wheeler, 2006Hainan toads
12
KenyaphrynoidesLiedtke, Malonza, Wasonga, Müller & Loader, 2023Mount Kenya forest toads
1
LaurentophryneTihen, 1960Parker's tree toad
1
LeptophryneFitzinger, 1843Indonesia tree toads
3
MelanophryniscusGallardo, 1961South American redbelly toads
29
MertensophryneTihen, 1960Snouted frogs
14
MetaphryniscusSeñaris, Ayarzagüena & Gorzula, 1994
1
NannophryneGünther, 1870
4
NectophryneBuchholz & Peters, 1875African tree toads
2
NectophrynoidesBuchholz & Peters, 1875African live-bearing toads
13
NimbaphrynoidesDubois, 1987Nimba toads
1
OreophrynellaBoulenger, 1895Bush toads
8
OsornophryneRuiz-Carranza & Hernández-Camacho, 1976Plump toads
11
ParapelophryneFei, Ye & Jiang, 2003
1
PedostibesGünther, 1876Asian tree toads
1
PelophryneBarbour, 1938Flathead toads
13
PeltophryneFitzinger, 1843Caribbean toads
14
PhrynoidisFitzinger in Treitschke, 1842Rough toads
2
PoyntonophrynusFrost, Grant, Faivovich, Bain, Haas, Haddad, de Sá, Channing, Wilkinson, Donnellan, Raxworthy, Campbell, Blotto, Moler, Drewes, Nussbaum, Lynch, Green, and Wheeler, 2006Pygmy toads
11
PseudobufoTschudi, 1838False toad
1
RentapiaChan, Grismer, Zachariah, Brown, and Abraham, 2016
2
RhaeboCope, 1862Cope toads
13
RhinellaFitzinger, 1826Beaked toads
94
SabahphrynusMatsui, Yambun, and Sudin, 2007Sabah earless toad
1
SchismadermaSmith, 1849African split-skin toad
1
SclerophrysTschudi, 1838
44
SigalegalephrynusSmart, Sarker, Arifin, Harvey, Sidik, Hamidy, Kurniawan, and Smith, 2017Puppet toads
5
StrauchbufoFei, Ye, and Jiang, 2012Siberian toad; Mongolian toad
1
TruebellaGraybeal & Cannatella, 1995
2
VandijkophrynusFrost, Grant, Faivovich, Bain, Haas, Haddad, de Sá, Channing, Wilkinson, Donnellan, Raxworthy, Campbell, Blotto, Moler, Drewes, Nussbaum, Lynch, Green, and Wheeler, 2006Van Dijk's toads
6
WerneriaPoche, 1903Smalltongue toads
6
WolterstorffinaMertens, 1939Wolterstorff toads
3
XanthophryneBiju, Van Bocxlaer, Giri, Loader & Bossuyt, 2009
2

The family also contains anincertae sedis species,"Bufo"scortecciiBalletto & Cherchi, 1970.

References

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  1. ^abZweifel, Richard G. (1998). Cogger, H.G.; Zweifel, R.G. (eds.).Encyclopedia of Reptiles and Amphibians. San Diego: Academic Press. pp. 91–92.ISBN 978-0-12-178560-4.
  2. ^Pramuk, Jennifer B.; Robertson, Tasia; Sites, Jack W.; Noonan, Brice P. (2008)."Around the world in 10 million years: biogeography of the nearly cosmopolitan true toads (Anura: Bufonidae)".Global Ecology and Biogeography.17 (1):72–83.Bibcode:2008GloEB..17...72P.doi:10.1111/j.1466-8238.2007.00348.x.ISSN 1466-8238.
  3. ^abcKok, Philippe J. R.; Ratz, Sebastian; MacCulloch, Ross D.; Lathrop, Amy; Dezfoulian, Raheleh; Aubret, Fabien; Means, D. Bruce (2018)."Historical biogeography of the palaeoendemic toad genus Oreophrynella (Amphibia: Bufonidae) sheds a new light on the origin of the Pantepui endemic terrestrial biota".Journal of Biogeography.45 (1):26–36.Bibcode:2018JBiog..45...26K.doi:10.1111/jbi.13093.ISSN 1365-2699.S2CID 90886846.
  4. ^Portik, Daniel M.; Papenfuss, Theodore J. (2015-08-06)."Historical biogeography resolves the origins of endemic Arabian toad lineages (Anura: Bufonidae): Evidence for ancient vicariance and dispersal events with the Horn of Africa and South Asia".BMC Evolutionary Biology.15 (1): 152.Bibcode:2015BMCEE..15..152P.doi:10.1186/s12862-015-0417-y.ISSN 1471-2148.PMC 4527211.PMID 26245197.
  5. ^Chan, Kin Onn; Grismer, L. Lee; Zachariah, Anil; Brown, Rafe M.; Abraham, Robin Kurian (2016-01-20)."Polyphyly of Asian Tree Toads, Genus Pedostibes Günther, 1876 (Anura: Bufonidae), and the Description of a New Genus from Southeast Asia".PLOS ONE.11 (1) e0145903.Bibcode:2016PLoSO..1145903C.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0145903.ISSN 1932-6203.PMC 4720419.PMID 26788854.
  6. ^Chandramouli, S. R.; Vasudevan, Karthikeyan; Harikrishnan, S.; Dutta, Sushil Kumar; Janani, S. Jegath; Sharma, Richa; Das, Indraneil; Aggarwal, Ramesh (2016-01-20)."A new genus and species of arboreal toad with phytotelmonous larvae, from the Andaman Islands, India (Lissamphibia, Anura, Bufonidae)".ZooKeys (555):57–90.Bibcode:2016ZooK..555...57C.doi:10.3897/zookeys.555.6522.ISSN 1313-2970.PMC 4740822.PMID 26877687.
  7. ^"The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species".IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Retrieved2019-01-19.
  8. ^Piprek, Rafal P., et al. "Bidder's Organ – Structure, Development and Function." The International Journal of Developmental Biology, vol. 58, no. 10-11–12, 2014, pp. 819–27. Crossref, doi:10.1387/ijdb.140147rp.
  9. ^Brown, Federico D.; Del Pino, Eugenia M.; Krohne, Georg (December 2002)."Bidder's organ in the toad Bufo marinus: Effects of orchidectomy on the morphology and expression of lamina-associated polypeptide 2".Development, Growth & Differentiation.44 (6):527–535.doi:10.1046/j.1440-169X.2002.00665.x.ISSN 1440-169X.PMID 12492511.S2CID 44753338.
  10. ^Paluh, Daniel J., et al. "Rampant Tooth Loss Across 200 Million Years of Frog Evolution." BioRxiv, 2021. Crossref, doi:10.1101/2021.02.04.429809.
  11. ^abVitt, Laurie J.; Caldwell, Janalee P. (2014).Herpetology: An Introductory Biology of Amphibians and Reptiles (4th ed.). Academic Press. p. 122.
  12. ^Iskandar, D. T.; Evans, B. J.; McGuire, J. A. (2014)."A novel reproductive mode in frogs: a new species of fanged frog with internal fertilization and birth of tadpoles".PLOS ONE.9 (12) e115884.Bibcode:2014PLoSO...9k5884I.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0115884.PMC 4281041.PMID 25551466.
  13. ^S. R. Chandramouli, Karthikeyan, Vasudevan, S Harikrishnan, Sushil Kumar Dutta, S Jegath Janani, Richa Sharma, Indraneil Das, Ramesh Aggarwal. "A new genus and species of arboreal toad with phytotelmonous larvae, from the Andaman Islands, India (Lissamphibia, Anura, Bufonidae)" ZooKeys (2016) 555: 57–90,https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.555.6522

External links

[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related toBufonidae.
Wikispecies has information related toBufonidae.
Look uptoad in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Extantanuran families by suborder
Archaeobatrachia
White-lipped Tree Frog
Mesobatrachia
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