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The termmultiracial people refers to people who are of multipleraces[1] and the termmulti-ethnic people refers to people who are of more than oneethnicities.[2] A variety of terms have been used both historically and presently for multiracial people in a variety of contexts, includingmultiethnic,polyethnic, occasionallybi-ethnic,biracial,mixed-race,Métis,Muwallad,[3]Melezi,[4]Coloured,Dougla,half-caste,ʻafakasi,mulatto,mestizo,[5]mutt,[6]Melungeon,[7]quadroon,[8]octoroon,griffe,sacatra,sambo/zambo,[9]Eurasian,[10]hapa,hāfu,Garifuna,pardo, andGurans. A number of these once-acceptable terms are now consideredoffensive, in addition to those that were initially coined for pejorative use.
Individuals of multiracial backgrounds make up a significant portion of the population in many parts of the world. InNorth America, studies have found that the multiracial population is continuing to grow. In many countries ofLatin America,mestizos make up the majority of the population and in some others alsomulattoes. In the Caribbean, multiracial people officially make up the majority of the population in the Dominican Republic (73%), Aruba (68%), and Cuba (51%).[11]
While defining race is controversial,[broken anchor][12]race remains a commonly used term for classification, often related to visible physical characteristics or known community. Insofar as race is defined differently in different cultures, perceptions of mixed race are subjective.
According to U.S. sociologistTroy Duster and ethicist Pilar Ossorio:
Some percentage of people who look native European will possess genetic markers indicating that a significant majority of their recent ancestors were African. Some percentage of people who look African or native African will possess genetic markers indicating the majority of their recent ancestors were European.[13]
In the United States:
Many state and local agencies comply with the U.S. Office of Management and Budget (OMB) 1997 revised standards for the collection, tabulation, and presentation of federal data on race and ethnicity. The revised OMB standards identify a minimum of five racial categories:European American;African American;Native American and Alaska Native;Asian; andNative Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander. Perhaps the most significant change for Census 2000 was that respondents were given the option to mark one or more races on the questionnaire to indicate their racial identity.Census 2000 race data are shown for people who reported a race either alone or in combination with one or more other races.[14]
In theEnglish-speaking world, many terms for mixed-race people exist, some of which are pejorative or are no longer used.Mulato,zambo andmestizo are used inSpanish,mulato,caboclo,cafuzo,ainoko (fromJapanese) andmestiço in Portuguese, andmulâtre andmétis inFrench. These terms are also in certain contexts used in the English-speaking world. InCanada, theMétis are a recognized ethnic group of mixed European andIndigenous American descent, who have status in the law similar to that ofFirst Nations.
Terms such asmulatto for people of partially African descent andmestizo for people of partially Native American descent are still used by English-speaking people of the Western Hemisphere[citation needed] but mostly to refer to the past or to the demography ofLatin America and its diasporic population.Half-breed is a historic term for people of partial Native American ancestry; it is now considered pejorative and discouraged from use.Mestee, once widely used, is now used mostly for members of historically mixed-race groups, such as Louisiana Creoles,Melungeons,Redbones,Brass Ankles andMayles.
In South Africa and much of English-speaking southern Africa, the termColoured was used to describe both mixed-race persons of African and European descent, and those Asians not of African descent.[15]
In Latin America, populations became triracial after the introduction of African slavery. A panoply of terms developed during the Spanish and Portuguese colonial periods, including terms such aszambo for persons of Native American and native African descent. Charts and diagrams intended to explain the classifications were common. The well-knownCasta paintings in Mexico and, to some extent, Peru, were illustrations of the different classifications.
At one time, Latin American census categories have used such classifications. In Brazilian censuses since theImperial times, for example, most persons of mixed heritage, exceptAsian Brazilians with someEuropean descent (or any other to the extent it is not clearly perceptible) and vice versa, tend to be thrown into the single category of "pardo". Butracial boundaries in Brazil are related less to ancestry than to phenotype. A westernized Amerindian withcopper-colored skin may also be classified as a "pardo", acaboclo in this case, despite not being mixed race. A European-looking person, even with one or more nativeAfrican or Indigenous ancestors, is not classified as "pardo" but as "branco", awhite Brazilian. The same applies to "negros",Afro-Brazilians whose European or Native American ancestors are not visible in their appearance. According to genetic research, most Brazilians of all racial groups (except Asian-Brazilians and natives) are, to some extent, mixed-race.
In the English language, the termsmiscegenation andamalgamation were used for unions between whites, blacks, and other ethnic groups. The term 'miscegenation' initially replaced 'amalgamation' due to the latter's association with slavery in the 1800s,[16][17] while 'miscegenation' is today often considered offensive and controversial.[18] The termsmixed-race,biracial ormultiracial are becoming generally accepted. In other languages, terms for miscegenation are not necessarily considered offensive.[18]
The terms "multi-ethnic people" or "ethnically mixed people" refer to people who are of more than oneethnicity.[2][19]
InEast Africa, specificallyUganda,Kenya andTanzania (including portions of theEast African Community), people of mixed race are calledhalf-castes (in English) orchotara (singular, inSwahili),wachotara (plural in Swahili).[20]
North Africa has numerous mixed-race communities, reflecting a history of both extensive Mediterranean trade around the region and later colonization and migration by African groups. Among these are theHaratin, oasis-dwellers of Saharan southernMorocco,Algeria, andMauritania. They are believed to be an ethnicity composed ofSub-Saharan African andBerber ancestry. They constitute a socially and ethnically distinct group within the Maghreb.[21]
For centuries,Arab slave traders sold sub-Saharan Africans as slaves in cumulatively large numbers throughout thePersian Gulf,Anatolia,Central Asia and theArab world. Communities descended from these slaves and local peoples can be found throughout these regions.[22] Barbary pirates were known to attack European and British ships and take Europeans into slavery as well. So many were taken, that the memoirs of survivors are considered a literary genre known ascaptivity narratives. When English and other European colonists were taken captive by Native Americans, they had models for recounting their trials.
Cape Verde, in west Africa, has one of the most mixed-race populations (around 75% of the population) on the planet.[citation needed]
InSouth Africa, theProhibition of Mixed Marriages Act of 1949 prohibited marriage between Native Europeans (people of European descent) and non-Whites (being classified as African, Asian and Coloured). But this followed centuries of interaction and unions resulting in mixed-race children. This law was repealed in 1985.
Mixed-race South Africans are commonly referred to asColoureds. According to the 2016 South African Census,[23] they are the second-largest ethnic group (8.8%), behindNative Africans, or Native African Bantu peoples, who constitute (80.8%) of the current population.European South Africans make up 8.1%.[23]
Madagascar was settled between the first and ninth centuries AD by two groups:Austronesian peoples who arrived onoutrigger canoes from across the Indian Ocean, andBantu peoples who crossed theMozambique Channel from mainland Africa. These two groups intermixed, forming the modern Malagasy people; later migrants from Arabia, Somalia, and India added to the genetic mixture.
Virtually all Malagasy people are of some degree of mixed descent; however, the amount of mixture varies greatly between regions of Madagascar, despite all Malagasy people sharing a common language and similar cultural elements. The Malagasy of the central highlands of Madagascar have predominantly Austronesian ancestry, the Malagasy of the west coast and the south of the island have predominantly Bantu ancestry, and Malagasy of the island's east coast are of roughly equal degrees Bantu and Austronesian ancestry. The average Malagasy person's genetic makeup includes a roughly equal blend of Southeast Asian and East African genes.[24]
The people of theIndian subcontinent have a diverse genetic pool, being composed of South Asian hunter-gatherers, Neolithic Iranians, andWestern Steppe Herders. This makes up the genome of modern-day Indians and varies from caste and region.
Henry Louis Vivian Derozio, a radical thinker and educator, was of Indian and European background.[relevant?]Prior to colonization, the peoples of India had a long history of trade and other interaction with other peoples. More recently a Eurasian mix developed during the Colonial period, beginning with the French, Dutch, Portuguese and other European traders and merchants, including British. Such interaction continued during theBritish Rule in India, although it lessened as British families settled in the country. The estimated population of Anglo-Indians, the term for these Eurasians, is 600,000 worldwide, with the majority living in India and the UK.
Article 366(2) of theIndian Constitution definesAnglo-Indian as:[25][26]
(2) an Anglo-Indian means a person whose father or any of whose other male progenitors in the male line is or was of European descent but who is domiciled within the territory of India and is or was born within such territory of parents habitually resident therein and not established there for temporary purposes only;
Myanmar (formerly Burma) was a British colony from 1826 until 1948. Other European nationals were active in the country before the British arrived. Intermarriage and relationships took place among such settlers and merchants with the local Burmese population, and subsequently between British colonists and the Burmese. The local Eurasian population is known as theAnglo-Burmese. This group dominated colonial society and through the early years of independence. After Burma gained independence in 1948, manyAnglo-Burmese left the country; the diaspora resides primarily inAustralia,New Zealand and theUK. An estimated 52,000 Anglo-Burmese live in Burma.
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ThePhilippines was aSpanish colony for almost four centuries, or 333 years. The United States took it over after the Spanish-American War, ruling for 46 years. Many Filipinos are mixedSpanish Filipino, and according toFedor Jagor, one-third of Luzon which holds half the Philippine population, has Spanish or Latin-American admxiture. And it also has Philippine-American descent.[27]
After the defeat of Spain during theSpanish–American War in 1898, the Philippines and other remainingSpanish colonies were ceded to the United States in theTreaty of Paris. The Philippines was under U.S.sovereignty until 1946, though occupied by Japan during World War II. In 1946, in theTreaty of Manila, the U.S. recognized the Republic of the Philippines as an independent nation. Even after 1946, the U.S. maintained a strong military presence in the Philippines, with as many as 21 U.S. military bases and 100,000 U.S. military personnel stationed there as defense in Asia and during the Vietnam War.
After the bases closed in 1992, American troops left, often abandoning partners and theirAmerasian children.[28] The Pearl S. Buck International foundation estimates there are 52,000 Amerasians in the Philippines, with 5,000 in the Clark area ofAngeles City.[29] An academic research paper presented in the U.S. (in 2012) by an Angeles, Pampanga, Philippines Amerasian college research study unit suggests that the number could be a lot more, possibly reaching 250,000. This is also partially due to the fact that almost all Amerasians intermarried with other Amerasians and Filipino natives.[30][31] The newer Amerasians from the United States would add to the already older settlement of peoples from other countries in the Americas that happened when the Philippines was under Spanish rule,[32] as the Philippines once received immigrants from Spanish occupied Panama, Peru,[33] and Mexico.[34]: Chpt. 6
In the United States, intermarriage between Filipinos and other ethnicities is common. They have the highest number ofinterracial marriages among Asian immigrant groups, as documented in California.[35] Some 21.8% of Philippine-Americans are of mixed ancestry.[36]
According to government statistics, the population ofSingapore as of September 2007 was 4.68 million. Mixed-race people, includingChindians andEurasians, formed 2.4%.
In Singapore andMalaysia, the majority of inter-ethnic marriages are betweenChinese andIndians. The offspring of such marriages are informally known as "Chindian". The Malaysian government classifies them only by their father's ethnicity. As the majority of these intermarriages usually involve an Indian groom and Chinese bride, the majority of Chindians in Malaysia are usually classified as "Indian" by the government. As for theMalays, who are predominantlyMuslim, legal restrictions in Malaysia make it uncommon for them to intermarry with either the Indians, who are predominantlyHindu, or the Chinese, who are predominantlyBuddhist andTaoist.[37] But Indian Muslims andArabs in Singapore and Malaysia often take local Malay wives, because of their commonIslamic faith.[38]
TheChitty people, in Singapore and theMalacca state of Malaysia, areTamils with considerable Malay ancestry. The early Tamil settlers took local wives, as they had not brought their own women at that time.
In the East Malaysian states ofSabah andSarawak, intermarriage has been common betweenChinese and native tribespeople, such as theMurut andDusun in Sabah, and theIban andBisaya in Sarawak. A mixture of cultures has resulted in both states. The offspring of these marriages are called "Sino-(name of tribe)", e.g. Sino-Dusun. Normally, children are strongly affected by the father's ethnicity and culture, being raised in his culture. TheseSino-natives usually become fluent in bothMalay andEnglish. A smaller number are able to speak Chinese dialects andMandarin, especially those who have received education in vernacular Chinese schools.
Due to its strategic location in the Indian Ocean, the island ofSri Lanka has been a confluence for settlers from various parts of the world. There are several mixed-race ethnicities in the island. The most notable mixed-race group is theSri Lankan Moors, who trace their ancestry to Arab traders who settled on the island and intermarried with local women. Today, the Sri Lankan Moors live primarily in urban communities. They preserve Arab-Islamic cultural heritage while adopting many Southern Asian customs.
TheBurghers are a Eurasian ethnic group. They are descendants through paternal lines of European colonists from the 16th to 20th centuries (mostly Portuguese, Dutch, German and British) and with maternal ancestry among local women. Other European minorities in such admixtures include Swedish, Norwegian, French and Irish.
TheSri Lanka Kaffirs are an ethnic group partially descended from 16th-century Portuguese traders and their enslaved Africans. The Kaffirs spoke a distinctive creole based on Portuguese, the Sri Lanka Kaffir language, which is now extinct. Their cultural heritage includes the dance styles Kaffringna and Manja, as well as the Portuguese Sinhalese, Creole, Afro-Sinhalese varieties.
Under terms of theGeneva Accords of 1954, departing French troops took thousands of Vietnamese wives and children with them after theFirst Indochina War. Some Eurasians stayed in Vietnam, after independence from French rule.[39]
Ottoman slave traders sold slaves in cumulatively large numbers over the centuries throughout thePersian Gulf,Anatolia,Central Asia and theArab world and communities descended from these slaves can be found throughout these regions.[22]
Romani people are of mixed South Asian, Middle Eastern and European ancestry. They settled in Europe hundreds of years ago.[40]
In 1991 an analysis of the census showed that 50% of Mixed Caribbean men born in the UK have native British partners,[41] and the 2011 BBC documentaryMixed Britannia noted that 1 in 10 British children are growing up in mixed households.
In 2000,The Sunday Times reported that "Britain has the highest rate of interracial relationships in the world" and certainly the UK has the highest rate in theEuropean Union.[42] The 2001 census showed the population of England to be 1.4% mixed-race, compared with 2.7% in Canada and 1.4% in the U.S. (estimate from 2002), although this U.S. figure did not include mixed-race people who had a parent with African Ancestry. Both the US and UK have fewer people identifying as mixed race, however, than Canada.
In the United Kingdom, many mixed-race people haveCaribbean,African orAsian heritage. For example, supermodelNaomi Campbell hasJamaican,African andAsian roots. Some, like seven timeFormula One World ChampionLewis Hamilton, are referred to or describe themselves as 'mixed'.
The2001 UK Census included a section entitled 'Mixed', to which 1.4% (1.6% by 2005 estimates) of people responded, which was split further intoWhite and Black Caribbean,White and Asian,White and Native African andOther Mixed.[citation needed] In the 2011 census, 2.2% chose 'Mixed' for the question on ethnicity.[43]
Mixed-race Canadians in 2006 officially totaled 1.5% of the population, up from 1.2% in 2001. The official mixed-race population grew by 25% since the previous census. Of these, the most frequent combinations weremultiple visible minorities (for example, people of mixed black and South Asian heritage form the majority, specifically inToronto), followed closely bywhite-black,white-Chinese,white-Arab and many other smaller mixes.[47]
During the time ofslavery in the United States, a very large but unknown number of African American slaves escaped to Canada, whereslavery was made illegal in 1834, via theUnderground Railroad. Many of these people married in with European Canadian and Native Canadian populations, although their precise numbers and the numbers of their descendants are not known.
Another 1.2% of Canadians officially areMétis (descendants of a historical population who were partiallyAboriginal—also called "Indian" or "Native"—andEuropean, particularlyEnglish,Scottish,Irish andFrench ethnic groups). Although the term "Métis" stems from the Latin verbmiscēre, "to mix", the Métis people are a distinct ethnic group within Canada.
In theUnited States, the 2000 census was the first in the history of the country to offer respondents the option of identifying themselves as belonging to more than one race. This mixed-race option was considered a necessary adaptation to the demographic and cultural changes that the United States has been experiencing.[48]
Mixed-raceAmericans officially numbered 6.1 million in 2006, or 2.0% of the population.[49][50] There is considerable evidence that an accurate number would be much higher. Prior to the mid-20th century, many people hid their mixed-race heritage. The development ofbinary thinking about race meant that African Americans, a high proportion of whom have also had European ancestry, were classified as black. Some are now reclaiming additional ancestries. Many Americans today are multi-racial without knowing it. According to the Census Bureau, as of 2002, 75% of allAfrican Americans had mixed ancestries, usually European and Native American.[51]
In 2010, the number of Americans who checked both "black" and "white" on their census forms was 134 percent higher than it had been a decade earlier.[52] In 2012, those choosing 'Two or more races' on the census was 2.4% of the total.[53]
According toJames P. Allen and Eugene Turner, by some calculations in the 2000 Census, the mixed-race population that is part white is as follows:
The stigma of a mixed-race heritage, associated with racial discrimination among numerous racial groups, has decreased significantly in the United States. People of mixed-race heritage can identify themselves now in the U.S. Census by any combination of races, whereas before Americans were required to select from only one category. For example, in 2010, they were offered choices of one or more racial categories from the following list:[55]
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The US has a growing mixed-race identity movement, reflective of a desire by people to claim their full identities.Interracial marriage, most notably between whites and blacks, was historically deemed immoral and illegal in most states in the 18th, 19th and first half of the 20th century because of its long association of blacks with the slave caste.California and theWestern United States had similar laws to prohibit European-Asian marriages, which was associated with discrimination against Chinese and Japanese on the West Coast. Many states eventually repealed such laws and a 1967 decision by the US Supreme Court (Loving v. Virginia) overturned all remaining USanti-miscegenation laws.
The United States is one of the most racially diverse countries in the world. Americans are mostly mixed ethnic descendants of various immigrant nationalities culturally distinct in their former countries.Assimilation andintegration took place, unevenly at different periods of history, depending on the American region. The "Americanization" of foreign ethnic groups and the inter-racial diversity of millions of Americans has been a fundamental part of its history, especially on frontiers where different groups of people came together.[56]
On January 20, 2009,Barack Obama was sworn in as America's first mixed-race president,[57] as he is the son of aEuropean American mother of mostlyEnglish descent and aLuo father fromKenya. He acknowledges both parents. His officialWhite House biography describes him asAfrican American.[58] In Hawai'i, the U.S. state in which he was born, he would be called "hapa", which is theHawaiian word for "mixed race".[59]
Fiji has long been a multi-ethnic country, with a vast majority of people being mixed race even if they do not self-identify in that manner. The indigenous Fijians are of mixed Melanesian and Polynesian ancestry, resulting from years of migration of islanders from various places mixing with each other. Fiji Islanders from the Lau group have intermarried withTongans and other Polynesians over the years. The overwhelming majority of the rest of the indigenous Fijians, though, can be genetically traced to having mixed Polynesian/Melanesian ancestry.
The Indo-Fijian population is also a hodge-podge of South Asian immigrants (called Girmits in Fiji), who came as indentured labourers beginning in 1879. While a few of these labourers managed to bring wives, many of them either took or were given wives once they arrived in Fiji. The Girmits, who are classified as simply "Indians" to this day, came from many parts of the Indian subcontinent of present-dayIndia,Pakistan and to a lesser degreeBangladesh andMyanmar. It is easy to recognize the Indian mixtures present in Fiji and see obvious traces of Southern and Northern Indians and other groups who have been categorised together. More of this phenomenon would have likely happened if the religious groups represented (primarily Hindu, Muslim andSikh) had not resisted to some degree marriage between religious groups, which tended to be from more similar parts of the Indian subcontinent.
Over the years, particularly in thesugar cane-growing regions of WesternViti Levu and parts ofVanua Levu, Indo-Fijians and Indigenous Fijians have mixed. Others have Chinese/Fijian ancestry, Indo-Fijian/Samoan or Rotuman ancestry and European/Fijian ancestry (often called "part Fijians"). The latter are often descendants of shipwrecked sailors and settlers who came during the colonial period. Migration from a dozen or more different Pacific countries (Tuvalu,Solomon Islands,Vanuatu, Samoa andWallis and Futuna being the most prevalent) have added to the various ethnicities and intermarriages.
"Mestizo" is the common word for mixed-race people inLatin America, especially people withNative American andSpanish or other European ancestry. Mestizos make up a large portion of Latin Americans, comprising a majority in many countries.
In Latin America, racial mixture was officially acknowledged from colonial times. There was official nomenclature for every conceivable mixture present in the various countries. Initially, this classification was used as a type of caste system, where rights and privileges were accorded depending on one's official racial classification. Official caste distinctions were abolished in many countries of theSpanish-speakingAmericas as they became independent of Spain. Several terms have remained in common usage.
Race and racial mixture have played a significant role in the politics of many Latin American countries. In most countries, for exampleMexico,Puerto Rico,Dominican Republic andPanama, a majority of the population can be described as biracial or mixed race (depending on the country). InMexico, over 80% of the population ismestizo in some degree or another.[61]
The Mexican philosopher and educatorJosé Vasconcelos authored an essay on the subject, "La Raza Cósmica", celebrating racial mixture.Venezuelan ex-presidentHugo Chávez, of Spanish, indigenous and African ancestry, made positive references to the mixed-race ancestry of most Latin Americans from time to time.
Colonialism throughout theWest Indies has created diverse populations on many islands, including people of mixed race identities. Of note is the mixture ofWest African communities, most brought to the region as slaves andEast Indian settlers, most of whom came as indentured labor after the abolition of slavery.Trinidad and Tobago,Guyana andSuriname claim the highest populations of such mixtures, known locally asdouglas. In addition to such mixtures, many inhabitants of the West Indies can also have any combination ofAmerindian,Latino,European,Chinese,Arab andJewish heritage.
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According to the 2022 official census, 45.34% ofBrazilians identified themselves asPardo.[64] This option is normally chosen by people who consider themselves mixed race. TheMixed Race Day (Dia do Mestiço), on 27 June, is official event in the states of Amazonas, Roraima, and Paraíba and a holiday in two cities. Other than pardo, people who are mixed race also have other names to refer to themselves such asmoreno,caboclo,mestiço andmulatto. Those terms are not considered offensive and focus more on skin color than ethnicity (they are seen as comparable to other human characteristics, such as being short or tall).
Most Brazilians of mixed race are usually tri-racial, with Amerindian, European, and African origins. Other common mixed-race groups are betweenEuropean andAfrican (mulatto) andAmerindian and European (caboclo ormameluco). But there are also African and Amerindian (cafuzo) andEast Asian (mostly Japanese) and European/other (ainoko or more recently,hāfu). These groups are found throughout the country to varying degrees.
Since mixed-race relations in Brazilian society have occurred for many generations, some people find it difficult to trace their own ethnic ancestry. Today a majority of mixed-race Brazilians do not really know their ethnic ancestry, but they are aware that their ancestors were probably Portuguese, African and Amerindian. Additionally, a very large number of Italians (Brazil has the largest Italian population outside Italy), Japanese (the largest Japanese population outside Japan), Lebanese (the largest Lebanese population outside Lebanon), Germans, Poles, Russians and others contributed to Brazil's racial makeup. A high percentage of Brazilians is also of Jewish descent, perhaps hundreds of thousands, mostly found in the northeast of the country who cannot be sure of their ancestry as they descend from the so-called "Crypto-Jews" (Jews who practiced Judaism in secret but outwardly pretended to be Catholics), also called Marranos or New Christians, often considered Portuguese. According to some sources, one third of families arrived from Portugal during colonization were of Jewish origin.[citation needed]
Not surprisingly, biomedical scientists are divided in their opinions about race. Some characterize it as 'biologically meaningless' or 'not based on scientific evidence', whereas others advocate the use of race in making decisions about medical treatment or the design of research studies."citingBarbujani, Guido; Magagni, Arianna; Minch, Eric; Cavalli-Sforza, L. Luca (April 1997)."An apportionment of human DNA diversity".Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA.94 (9):4516–4519.Bibcode:1997PNAS...94.4516B.doi:10.1073/pnas.94.9.4516.PMC 20754.PMID 9114021.
While miscegenation is by no means considered a neutral word today, very few people know just how laden it is. [...] Today, 'mixed race' seems to have won out in academic writing. [...] Results for 'biracial' and 'multiracial' combined offer up about half that. But the debate continues, inside and outside the ivory tower.
He (Governor Don Sebastían Hurtado de Corcuera) brought a great reënforcements of soldiers, many of them from Perú, as he made his voyage to Acapulco from that kingdom.
{{cite book}}:|work= ignored (help)quoting Professor Richard Berthoud of the Institute for Social and Economic Research
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