English is the country's official language (the national standard variety isTrinidadian and Tobagonian English), but the main spoken languages are Trinidadian Creole andTobagonian Creole.[3] Prior to English being designated as the country’s official language, a French mixed with formerly enslaved African languages type of Creole was more prominent throughout the island amongst former slaves.[4]
English became the country's official language in 1823. Consequently, government and educational institutions endorsement of the language change significantly and influenced the progressive transition and phaseout of the former French mixed Creole to an English based Creole, that is now more widely spoken.[5][6]
Both creoles contain elements from a variety of other languages, brought to the island over time by mostly African slaves and East Indian settlers. As of 2011, there were 1 million native speakers.[7]
In 1797, Amerindian settlers came to Trinidad followed by the French and the Spanish. They proceeded to set up sugar plantations with the use of slavery of Africans.[8] Like otherCaribbeanEnglish-based creoles, Trinidadian English Creole has a primarily English-derived vocabulary. In the mid-nineteenth century, when the use of slavery was demolished, people from China, Portuguese islands, Venezuela, Madeira, India, west Africa, Syria and Lebanon were used as labourers for the island.[8] The island also has a creole with a largelyFrench lexicon, which was in widespread use until the late nineteenth century, when it started to be gradually replaced, due to influence and pressure from the British.[9]
Although there is considerable variation, some generalizations can be made about the speech of Trinidad:
Like a number of related creoles, Trinidadian English Creole isnon-rhotic, meaning that/r/ does not occur after vowels, except in recentloanwords or names from Spanish, Hindi/Bhojpuri, and Arabic.[12]
In mesolectal forms,cut,cot,caught, andcurt are all pronounced with[ɒ].[13]
Trinidad English Creole is usually syllable-timed and not stress-timed; therefore it often has full vowels where Standard English has the reduced form /ə/.[1]
Although, there is no clear connection between pitch and stress,[15] words of Trinidad English Creole are marked by a stress-initial syllable.[8]
Both Trinidad and Tobago[19] featurecreole continua between more conservative Creole forms and forms much closer toTrinidadian English, with the former being more common in spontaneous speech and the latter in more formal speech.[20] Trinidad English Creole is one of the first languages learnt for most speakers. Trinidadian English is introduced in primary schools which are carried out in standardized English.[18] Because of the social values attributed to linguistic forms, the more common varieties (that is, more creolized forms) carry little prestige in certain contexts.[21]
Winford, Donald (1985), "The concept of "diglossia" in Caribbean creole situations",Language in Society,14 (3):345–356,doi:10.1017/s0047404500011301
Youssef, Winford; James (2004),"The creoles of Trinidad and Tobago: Phonology"(PDF), in Kortmann, Bernd; Schneider, Edgar W.; Burridge, Kate; Mesthrie, Rajend; Upton, Clive (eds.),Handbook of Varieties of English, vol. 1: Phonology, Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter,ISBN978-3-11-017532-5
Allsopp, Richard, & Jeannette Allsopp (French and Spanish Supplement), 2003,Dictionary of Caribbean English Usage. Kingston: University of the West Indies Press.
Allsopp, Richard, & Jeannette Allsopp 2010,New Register of Caribbean English Usage. Kingston: University of the West Indies Press.
Trinidad and Tobago