^Despite becoming a republic on 1 August, Republic Day is celebrated as a public holiday on 24 September because this is the date when the first Parliament met under the new Republican Constitution.[6]
Trinidad and Tobago,[a] officially theRepublic of Trinidad and Tobago, is the southernmostisland country in theCaribbean, comprising the main islands ofTrinidad andTobago, along with severalsmaller islets. The capital city isPort of Spain, while its largest and most populous municipality isChaguanas. Despite its proximity toSouth America, being on itscontinental shelf, Trinidad and Tobago is generally considered to be part of the Caribbean.
Trinidad and Tobago is located 11 kilometres (6 nautical miles) northeast off the coast ofVenezuela, 130 kilometres (70 nautical miles) south ofGrenada, and 288 kilometres (155 nautical miles) southwest ofBarbados.[11][12][13]Indigenous peoples inhabited Trinidad for centuries prior toSpanish colonization, following the arrival ofChristopher Columbus in 1498. Spanish governorJosé María Chacón surrendered the island to a British fleet under SirRalph Abercromby's command in 1797.[14] Trinidad and Tobago were ceded to Britain in 1802 under theTreaty of Amiens as separate states and unified in 1889.[15] Trinidad and Tobago obtained independence in 1962, and became a republic in 1976.[16][11]
Unlike most Caribbean countries and territories, which rely heavily on tourism, the economy is primarily industrial, based on large reserves ofoil and gas.[17][18] The country sees fewer hurricanes than most of the Caribbean because it is farther south.
HistorianE. L. Joseph claimed that Trinidad's Indigenous name wasCairi or "Land of theHumming Bird", derived from theArawak name for hummingbird,ierèttê oryerettê. However, other authors dispute this etymology with some claiming thatcairi does not mean hummingbird (tukusi ortucuchi being suggested as the correct word) and some claiming thatkairi, oriere, simply meansisland.[19]Christopher Columbus renamed it "La Isla de la Trinidad" ("The Island of theTrinity"), fulfilling a vow made before setting out on his third voyage of exploration.[20] Tobago's cigar-like shape, or the use of tobacco by the native people, may have given it its Spanish name (cabaco,tavaco,tobacco) and possibly some of its other Indigenous names, such asAloubaéra (black conch) andUrupaina (big snail),[19] although the English pronunciation is/təˈbeɪɡoʊ/.Indo-Trinidadians called the islandChinidat orChinidad which translated to the "land of sugar". The usage of the term goes back to the 19th century when recruiters in India would call the islandChinidat as a way of luring workers into indentureship on the sugar plantations.[21]
The islands that make up modern-day Trinidad and Tobago lie at the southern end of theLesser Antilles group. The islands lie close to the continent of South America, separated by theGulf of Paria.
Trinidad and Tobago were originally settled byIndigenous peoples migrating fromSouth America.[11] The earliest known settlement is atBanwari Trace insouthwestern Trinidad, dating back to approximately 5000 BCE, making it the oldestpre-Columbian archaeological site in theCaribbean.[22] The site has yielded artifacts and the remains of "Banwari Man," the oldest human skeleton found in the region.[23][24][25][26]
At the time of European contact, Trinidad was inhabited by various Indigenous groups, includingArawakan-speaking peoples such as theNepoya and Suppoya, andCariban-speaking groups like the Yao.[27]Tobago was primarily occupied by theIsland Caribs
Christopher Columbus was the first European to see Trinidad, on his third voyage to the Americas in 1498.[22][28] He also reported seeing Tobago on the distant horizon, naming itBellaforma, but did not land on the island.[11][29]
English pirateWalter Raleigh raiding Spanish settlement in Trinidad in 1595
In the 1530sAntonio de Sedeño, a Spanish soldier intent on conquering the island of Trinidad, landed on its southwest coast with a small army of men, intending to subdue the Indigenous population of the island. Sedeño and his men fought the native peoples on many occasions, and subsequently built a fort. The next few decades were generally spent in warfare with the native peoples, until in 1592, the "Cacique" (native chief) Wannawanare (also known as Guanaguanare) granted the area around modernSaint Joseph to Domingo de Vera e Ibargüen, and withdrew to another part of the island.[19][30] The settlement of San José de Oruña was later established byAntonio de Berrío on this land in 1592.[11][22] Shortly thereafter the English pirateWalter Raleigh arrived in Trinidad on 22 March 1595in search of the long-rumoured "El Dorado" ("City of Gold") supposedly located in South America.[22] He attacked San José, captured and interrogated Antonio de Berrío, and obtained much information from him and from the Cacique Topiawari; Raleigh then went on his way, and Spanish authority was restored.[31]
Meanwhile, there were numerous attempts by European powers to settle Tobago during the 1620–40s, with the Dutch, English and Couronians (people from theDuchy of Courland and Semigallia, now part ofLatvia) all attempting to colonise the island with little success.[32][33] From 1654 the Dutch and Courlanders managed to gain a more secure foothold, later joined by several hundred French settlers.[32] A plantation economy developed based on the production of sugar, indigo and rum, worked by large numbers of African slaves who soon came to vastly outnumber the European colonists.[33][32] Large numbers of forts were constructed as Tobago became a source of contention between France, Netherlands and Britain, with the island changing hands some 31 times prior to 1814, a situation exacerbated by widespread piracy.[33] The British managed to hold Tobago from 1762 to 1781, whereupon it was captured by the French, who ruled until 1793 when Britain re-captured the island.[33]
The 17th century on Trinidad passed largely without major incident, but sustained attempts by the Spaniards to control and rule over the Indigenous population was often fiercely resisted.[22] In 1687 theCatholicCatalanCapuchin friars were given responsibility forthe conversions of theindigenous people ofTrinidad and theGuianas.[22] They founded several missions in Trinidad, supported and richly funded by the state, which also grantedencomienda right to them over the native peoples, in which the native peoples were forced to provide labour for the Spanish.[22] One such mission wasSanta Rosa de Arima, established in 1689, when Indigenous people from the formerencomiendas ofTacarigua andArauca (Arouca) were relocated further west.[citation needed] Escalating tensions between the Spaniards and Indigenous people culminated in violence in 1689, when Indigenous people in the San Rafael encomienda rebelled and killed several priests, attacked a church, and killed the Spanish governorJosé de León y Echales. Among those killed in the governor's party was Juan Mazien de Sotomayor, missionary priest to the Nepuyo villages of Caura, Tacarigua and Arauca.[34] The Spanish retaliated severely, slaughtering hundreds of native peoples in an event that became known as theArena massacre.[22] As a result of continuing Spanish slave-raiding, and the devastating impact of introduced disease to which they had no immunity, the native population was virtually wiped out by the end of the following century.[35][22]
During this period Trinidad was an island province belonging to theViceroyalty of New Spain, together with Central America, present-dayMexico and what would later become the southwesternUnited States.[36] In 1757 the capital was moved from San José de Oruña to Puerto de España (modernPort of Spain) following several pirate attacks.[37] However the Spanish never made any concerted effort to colonise the islands; Trinidad in this period was still mostly forest, populated by a few Spaniards with a handful of slaves and a few thousand Indigenous people.[36] Indeed, the population in 1777 was only 1,400, and Spanish colonisation in Trinidad remained tenuous.[citation needed]
In 1777, the captain generalLuis de Unzaga 'le Conciliateur', married to a French Creole, allowed free trade in Trinidad, attracting French settlers and its economy improved notably.[38]Since Trinidad was considered underpopulated, Roume de St. Laurent, a Frenchman living inGrenada, was able to obtain aCédula de Población from the Spanish kingCharles III on 4 November 1783.[39] ACédula de Población had previously been granted in 1776 by the king, but had not shown results, and therefore the new Cédula was more generous.[11] It granted free land and tax exemption for 10 years to Roman Catholic foreign settlers who were willing to swear allegiance to the King of Spain.[11] The land grant was 30 fanegas (13 hectares/32 acres) for each free man, woman and child and half of that for each slave that they brought with them. The Spanish sent a new governor,José María Chacón, to implement the terms of the newcédula.[39][40][41][42]
As a result, Trinidad's population jumped to over 15,000 by the end of 1789, and by 1797 the population ofPort of Spain had increased from under 3,000 to 10,422 in just five years, with a varied population of mixed race individuals, Spaniards, Africans, French republican soldiers, retired pirates and French nobility.[36] The total population of Trinidad was 17,718, of which 2,151 were of European ancestry, 4,476 were "free blacks and people of colour", 10,009 were enslaved people and 1,082 Indigenous people.[citation needed] The sparse settlement and slow rate of population-increase during Spanish rule (and even later during British rule) made Trinidad one of the less populated colonies of the West Indies, with the least developed plantation infrastructure.[44]
A medallion showing the capture of Trinidad and Tobago by theBritish in 1797.
The British had begun to take a keen interest in Trinidad, and in 1797 a British force led by GeneralSir Ralph Abercromby launched aninvasion of Trinidad.[11][45] His squadron sailed through the Bocas and anchored off the coast ofChaguaramas. Seriously outnumbered, Chacón decided to capitulate to the British without fighting.[45] Trinidad thus became a Britishcrown colony, with a largely French-speaking population and Spanish laws.[36] British rule was later formalised under theTreaty of Amiens (1802).[11][45] The colony's first British governor wasThomas Picton, however his heavy-handed approach to enforcing British authority, including the use of torture andarbitrary arrest, led to his being recalled.[45][better source needed]
Survey map from 1797 of Trinidad
British rule led to an influx of settlers from the United Kingdom and the British colonies of the Eastern Caribbean. English, Scots, Irish, German and Italian families arrived, as well as some free blacks known as "Merikins" who had fought for Britain in theWar of 1812 and were granted land in southern Trinidad.[46][47][48] Under British rule, new states were created and the importation of slaves increased, however by this time support forabolitionism had vastly increased and in England the slave trade was under attack.[44][49] Slavery wasabolished in 1833, after which former slaves served an "apprenticeship" period. In 1837, Daaga, a West African slave trader who had been captured by Portuguese slavers and later rescued by the British navy, was conscripted into the local regiment. Daaga and a group of his compatriotsmutinied at the barracks in St Joseph and set out eastward in an attempt to return to their homeland. The mutineers were ambushed by a militia unit just outside the town of Arima. The revolt was crushed at the cost of some 40 dead, and Daaga and his party were later executed at St Joseph.[50] The apprenticeship system ended on 1 August 1838 with full emancipation.[11][48] An overview of the population statistics in 1838, however, clearly reveals the contrast between Trinidad and its neighbouring islands: upon emancipation of the slaves in 1838, Trinidad had only 17,439 slaves, with 80% of slave owners having enslaved fewer than 10 people each.[51] In contrast, at twice the size of Trinidad, Jamaica had roughly 360,000 slaves.[52]
After the African slaves were emancipated many refused to continue working on the plantations, often moving out to urban areas such as Laventille andBelmont to the east of Port of Spain.[48] As a result, a severe agricultural labour shortage emerged. The British filled this gap by instituting a system ofindentureship. Various nationalities were contracted under this system, including Indians, Chinese, and Portuguese.[53] Of these, the East Indians were imported in the largest numbers, starting from 1 May 1845, when 225 Indians were brought in the first ship to Trinidad on theFatel Razack, a Muslim-owned vessel.[48][54] Indentureship of the Indians lasted from 1845 to 1917, during which time more than 147,000 Indians came to Trinidad to work on sugarcane plantations.[11][55]
Indentureship contracts were sometimes exploitative, to such an extent that historians such asHugh Tinker were to call it "a new system of slavery". Despite these descriptions, it was not truly a new form of slavery, as workers were paid, contracts were finite, and the idea of an individual being another's property had been eliminated when slavery was abolished.[56] In addition, employers of indentured labour had no legal right to flog or whip their workers; the main legal sanction for the enforcement of the indenture laws was prosecution in the courts, followed by fines or (more likely) jail sentences.[57] People were contracted for a period of five years, with a daily wage as low as 25 cents in the early 20th century, and they were guaranteed return passage to India at the end of their contract period. However,coercive means were often used to retain labourers, and theindentureship contracts were soon extended to 10 years from 1854 after the planters complained that they were losing their labour too early.[44][48] In lieu of the return passage, the British authorities soon began offering portions of land to encourage settlement, and by 1902, more than half of the sugar cane in Trinidad was being produced by independent cane farmers; the majority of which were Indians.[58] Despite the trying conditions experienced under the indenture system, about 90% of the Indian immigrants chose, at the end of their contracted periods of indenture, to make Trinidad their permanent home.[59] Indians entering the colony were also subject to certain crown laws whichsegregated them from the rest of Trinidad and Tobago's population, such as the requirement that they carry a pass with them if they left the plantations, and that if freed, they carry their "Free Papers" or certificate indicating completion of the indenture period.[60]
Few Indians settled on Tobago however, and the descendants of African slaves continued to form the majority of the island's population. An ongoing economic slump in the middle-to-late 19th century caused widespread poverty.[61] Discontent erupted into rioting on theRoxborough plantation in 1876, in an event known as the Belmanna Uprising after a policeman who was killed.[61] The British eventually managed to restore control; however, as a result of the disturbances Tobago's Legislative Assembly voted to dissolve itself and the island became a Crown colony in 1877.[61] With the sugar industry in a state of near-collapse and the island no longer profitable, the British attached Tobago to their Trinidad colony in 1889.[11][62][63]
In 1903,a protest against the introduction of new water rates in Port of Spain erupted into rioting; 18 people were shot dead, and theRed House (the government headquarters) was damaged by fire.[62] A local elected assembly with some limited powers was introduced in 1913.[62] Economically Trinidad and Tobago remained a predominantly agricultural colony; alongside sugarcane, the cacao (cocoa) crop also contributed greatly to economic earnings in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
In November 1919, the dockworkers went on strike over bad management practices, low wages compared to a higher cost of living.[64] Strikebreakers were brought in to keep a minimum of goods moving through the ports. On 1 December 1919, the striking dockworkers rushed the harbour and chased off the strikebreakers.[64] They then proceeded to march on the government buildings in Port of Spain. Other unions and workers, many with the same grievances, joined the dock worker's strike making it a General Strike.[64] Violence broke out and was only put down with help from the sailors of British Naval shipHMS Calcutta. The unity brought upon by the strike was the first time of cooperation between the various ethnic groups of the time.[65] Historian Brinsley Samaroo says that the 1919 strikes "seem to indicate that there was a growing class consciousness after the war and this transcended racial feelings at times."[65]
However, in the 1920s, the collapse of the sugarcane industry, concomitant with the failure of the cocoa industry, resulted in widespread depression among the rural and agricultural workers in Trinidad, and encouraged the rise of a labour movement. Conditions on the islands worsened in the 1930s with the onset of theGreat Depression, with an outbreak oflabour riots occurring in 1937 which resulted in several deaths.[66] The labour movement aimed to unite the urban working class and agricultural labour class; the key figures beingArthur Cipriani, who led theTrinidad Labour Party (TLP),Tubal Uriah "Buzz" Butler of theBritish Empire Citizens' and Workers' Home Rule Party, andAdrian Cola Rienzi, who led the Trinidad Citizens League (TCL),Oilfields Workers' Trade Union, andAll Trinidad Sugar Estates and Factory Workers Union.[66] As the movement developed calls for greater autonomy from British colonial rule became widespread; this effort was severely undermined by the British Home Office and by the British-educated Trinidadian elite, many of whom were descended from the plantocracy class.
Petroleum had been discovered in 1857, but became economically significant only in the 1930s and afterwards as a result of the collapse of sugarcane and cocoa, and increasing industrialization.[67][68][69] By the 1950s petroleum had become a staple in Trinidad's export market, and was responsible for a growing middle class among all sections of the Trinidad population. The collapse of Trinidad's major agricultural commodities, followed by the Depression, and the rise of the oil economy, led to major changes in the country's social structure.
The presence of Americanmilitary bases in Chaguaramas andCumuto in Trinidad duringWorld War II had a profound effect on society. The Americans vastly improved the infrastructure on Trinidad and provided many locals with well-paying jobs. The Americans left in 1961.[70]
In the post-war period the British began a process of decolonisation across the British Empire. In 1945 universal suffrage was introduced to Trinidad and Tobago.[11][62] Political parties emerged on the island, however these were largely divided along racial lines: Afro–Trinidadians and Tobagonians primarily supported thePeople's National Movement (PNM), formed in 1956 byEric Williams, with Indo-Trinidadians and Tobagonians mostly supporting thePeople's Democratic Party (PDP), formed in 1953 byBhadase Sagan Maraj,[71] which later merged into theDemocratic Labour Party (DLP) in 1957.[72] Britain's Caribbean colonies formed theWest Indies Federation in 1958 as a vehicle for independence, however the Federation dissolved after Jamaica withdrew following amembership referendum in 1961. The government of Trinidad and Tobago subsequently chose to seek independence from the United Kingdom on its own.[73]
Amidst the backdrop of the rising Black Power movement in 1960s Trinidad and Tobago, and following protests, strikes, and a mutiny attempt in April 1970, a more radical opposition emerged in the form of theNational Union of Freedom Fighters (NUFF). Dissatisfied with the perceived slow progress of change, and inspired by guerrilla warfare tactics, NUFF members launched attacks on banks, police stations, and other infrastructure, aiming to ignite a full-scale revolution against Prime Minister Eric Williams' government. However, the group faced increasing pressure from police and security forces, leading to the deaths of many members and the eventual suppression of the insurgency by 1974.[75][76]
In 1963 Tobago was struck byHurricane Flora, which killed 30 people and resulted in enormous destruction across the island.[77] Partly as a result of this, tourism came to replace agriculture as the island's primary source of income in the subsequent decades.[77] On 1 May 1968, Trinidad and Tobago joined theCaribbean Free Trade Association (CARIFTA), which provided a continued economic, rather than political, linkage between the formerBritish West IndiesEnglish-speaking countries after theWest Indies Federation failed. On 1 August 1973, the country became a founding member state of CARIFTA's successor, theCaribbean Community (CARICOM), which is apolitical andeconomic union between severalCaribbean countries and territories.
Between 1972 and 1983, the country profited greatly from the risingprice of oil and the discovery of vast new oil deposits in its territorial waters, resulting in an economic boom that substantially increased living standards.[11][72] In 1976 the country became a republic within theCommonwealth, though it retained theJudicial Committee of the Privy Council as its final appellate court.[11] The position of governor-general was replaced with that ofPresident;Ellis Clarke was the first to hold this largely ceremonial role.[78] Tobago was granted limited self-rule with the creation of theTobago House of Assembly in 1980.[61]
The PNM underPatrick Manning returned to power following the1991 Trinidad and Tobago general election.[11] Hoping to capitalise on an improvement in the economy, Manning calledan early election in 1995, however, this resulted in ahung parliament. Two NAR representatives backed the oppositionUnited National Congress (UNC), which had split off from the NAR in 1989, and they thus took power underBasdeo Panday, who became the country's first Indo-Trinidadian Prime Minister.[11][79][82] After a period of political confusion caused by a series of inconclusive election results, Patrick Manning returned to power in 2001, retaining that position until 2010.[11]
In 2003 the country entered a second oil boom, and petroleum, petrochemicals and natural gas continue to be the backbone of the economy. Tourism and the public service are the mainstay of the economy of Tobago, though authorities have attempted to diversify the island's economy.[83] A partnership resulted in Manning's defeat by the newly formedPeople's Partnership (PP) coalition in 2010, withKamla Persad-Bissessar becoming the country's first female prime minister.[84][85][86] Under the PP, a State of Emergency (SOE) was declared because of a spike in killings, and curfews were declared in so called "hotspots" around the country. The SOE lasted from August 21, 2011, to December 5, 2011.[87][88] However, the PP were defeated in 2015 by the PNM underKeith Rowley.[89][90] In August 2020, the governing People's National Movement won generalelection, earning the incumbent Prime Minister Keith Rowley a second term in office.[91] During the second term ofDr. Keith Rowley there were two declarations of states of emergency (SOE). The first, which came into effect on May 15, 2021, was to deal with theCOVID-19 pandemic. It involved curfews and restrictions on activities and public events.[92] The second SOE came into effect on December 30, 2024. The PM announced that it was to"address individuals who pose a threat to public safety, particularly those involved in criminal activities and the illegal use of firearms". No curfews or restrictions on public events was announced. The SOE is expected to end in mid April 2025.[93][94] Another major event that happened during this period in Trinidad and Tobago was the seventh Commonwealth Youth Games. It was originally scheduled to happen 2021 but was delayed due to the pandemic. The games were successfully held from August 4–11, 2023, in Trinidad and Tobago.[95][96] It is first time a Caribbean country and Trinidad and Tobago hosted the games. On January 3, 2024, Prime Minister Keith Rowley announced his intention to leave office as Prime Minister before the2025 Trinidad and Tobago general election. On February 26, 2025 Prime Minister Keith Rowley announced he will officially resign from office on March 16.[97] On January 6, 2025, Prime Minister Keith Rowley made the announcement that MinisterStuart Young was elected by the Parliamentary Caucus of thePeople's National Movement as Prime Minister, succeeding Rowley.[98] In April 2025,the opposition, centristUnited National Congress (UNC), won theelection, meaningKamla Persad-Bissessar became the next prime minister.[99]
Trinidad and Tobago's topographyTrinidad and Tobago from space
Trinidad is 4,768 km2 (1,841 sq mi) in area (comprising 93.0% of the country's total area) with an average length of 80 kilometres (50 mi) and an average width of 59 kilometres (37 mi). Tobago has an area of about 300 km2 (120 sq mi), or 5.8% of the country's area, is 41 km (25+1⁄2 mi) long and12 km (7+1⁄2 mi) at its greatest width. Trinidad and Tobago lie on the continental shelf of South America, and are thus geologically considered to lie entirely in South America.[11]
The terrain of the islands is a mixture of mountains and plains.[16] On Trinidad theNorthern Range runs parallel with the north coast, and contains the country's highest peak (El Cerro del Aripo), which is 940 metres (3,080 ft) above sea level,[16] and second highest (El Tucuche, 936 metres (3,071 ft)).[11] The rest of the island is generally flatter, excluding theCentral Range and Montserrat Hills in the centre of the island and theSouthern Range andTrinity Hills in the south. The three mountain ranges determine the drainage pattern of Trinidad.[100] The east coast is noted for its beaches, most notablyManzanilla Beach. The island contains several large swamp areas, such as theCaroni Swamp and theNariva Swamp.[11] Major bodies of water on Trinidad include theHollis Reservoir,Navet Reservoir,Caroni Reservoir. Trinidad is made up of a variety of soil types, the majority being fine sands and heavy clays. The alluvial valleys of the Northern Range and the soils of theEast–West Corridor are the most fertile.[102][citation needed] Trinidad is also notable for containingPitch Lake, the largest natural reservoir ofasphalt in the world.[16][11] Tobago contains a flat plain in its south-west, with the eastern half of the island being more mountainous, culminating in Pigeon Peak, the island's highest point at 550 metres (1,800 ft).[103] Tobago also contains several coral reefs off its coast.[11]
The majority of the population reside on the island of Trinidad, and this is thus the location of largesttowns and cities. There are four major municipalities in Trinidad: the capital Port of Spain,San Fernando,Arima andChaguanas. The main town on Tobago isScarborough.
The Southern Lowlands consist of Miocene andPliocene sands, clays, and gravels. These overlie oil and natural gas deposits, especially north of the Los Bajos Fault. The Southern Range forms the thirdanticlinal uplift. The rocks consist ofsandstones,shales,siltstones and clays formed in the Miocene and uplifted in thePleistocene.Oil sands andmud volcanoes are especially common in this area.[citation needed]
One of the natural wonders of the island isPitch Lake, a natural pitch lake on the island of Trinidad which is the largest naturally occurring deposit of asphalt on Earth.
Hurricane Beryl passes over Trinidad and Tobago in July 2024
Trinidad and Tobago has a maritimetropical climate.[16][11] There are two seasons annually: thedry season for the first five months of the year, and therainy season in the remaining seven of the year. Winds are predominantly from the northeast and are dominated by the northeasttrade winds. Unlike many Caribbean islands Trinidad and Tobago lies outside the main hurricane alleys; nevertheless, the island of Tobago was struck byHurricane Flora on 30 September 1963. In the Northern Range of Trinidad, the climate is often cooler than that of the sweltering heat of the plains below, due to constant cloud and mist cover, and heavy rains in the mountains.
Record temperatures for Trinidad and Tobago are 39 °C (102 °F)[104] for the high in Port of Spain, and a low of 12 °C (54 °F).[105]
Mayaro Beach, in the southeastern area of TrinidadTrinidad MotmotsChannel-billed toucan, Trinidad
Because the islands of Trinidad and Tobago lie on the continental shelf of South America, and in ancient times were physically connected to the South American mainland, their biological diversity is unlike that of most other Caribbean islands, and has much more in common with that of Venezuela.[106] The main ecosystems are: coastal and marine (coral reefs, mangrove swamps, open ocean and seagrass beds); forest; freshwater (rivers and streams);karst; man-made ecosystems (agricultural land, freshwater dams, secondary forest); and savanna. On 1 August 1996, Trinidad and Tobago ratified the 1992 RioConvention on Biological Diversity, and it has produced a biodiversity action plan and four reports describing the country's contribution to biodiversity conservation. These reports formally acknowledged the importance of biodiversity to the well-being of the country's people through provision ofecosystem services.[107]
Although the list is far from complete, 1,647 species of fungi, including lichens, have been recorded.[116][117][118] The true total number of fungi is likely to be far higher, given the generally accepted estimate that only about 7% of all fungi worldwide have so far been discovered.[119] A first effort to estimate the number of endemic fungi tentatively listed 407 species.[120]
Information about micro-organisms is dispersed and very incomplete. Nearly 200 species of marine algae have been recorded.[108] The true total number of micro-organism species must be much higher.
Thanks to a recently published checklist, plant diversity in Trinidad and Tobago is well documented with about 3,300 species (59 endemic) recorded.[108] Despite significant felling, forests still cover about 40% of the country, and there are about 350 different species of tree.[106] A notable tree is themanchineel which is extremely poisonous to humans, and even just touching its sap can cause severe blistering of the skin; the tree is often covered with warning signs. The country had a 2019Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 6.62/10, ranking it 69th globally out of 172 countries.[121]
Threats to the country's biodiversity include over-hunting and poaching (seeHunting#Trinidad and Tobago), habitat loss and fragmentation (particularly due to forest fires and land clearance for quarrying, agriculture, squatting, housing and industrial development and road construction), water pollution, and introduction of invasive species and pathogens.
Thehead of state of Trinidad and Tobago is the president, a largely ceremonial role currently held byChristine Kangaloo.[16] This position replaced that of the governor-general—who had represented themonarch of Trinidad and Tobago—when the country became a republic in 1976.[11]
Thehead of government is theprime minister, currentlyKamla Persad-Bissessar since May, 2025. On January 3, 2025, then-Prime MinisterKeith Rowley announced his intention to demit office before the2025 Trinidad and Tobago general election. He later confirmed on February 26 that he would officially resign on March 16.[97] On January 6, 2025,Stuart Young was elected Prime Minister-designate by the Parliamentary Caucus of thePeople's National Movement to succeed Rowley.[98] He officially assumed office on March 17, 2025. Young’s party, the People’s National Movement (PNM) subsequently lost elections with Young losing the prime ministership.
Following a general election, which takes place every five years, the president appoints as prime minister the person who has the support of a majority in theHouse of Representatives; this has generally been the leader of the party which won the most seats in the election (except in the case of the2001 General Elections).[11]
Since 1980 Tobago has also had its own elections, separate from the general elections. In these elections, members are elected and serve in the unicameral Tobago House of Assembly.[16][11][122]
Parliament consists of theSenate (31 seats) and theHouse of Representatives (41 seats, plus the Speaker).[16][123] The members of the Senate are appointed by the president; 16 government senators are appointed on the advice of the prime minister, six opposition senators are appointed on the advice of theleader of the opposition, currentlyPennelope Beckles-Robinson, and nine independent senators are appointed by the president to represent other sectors of civil society. The 41 members of the House of Representatives are elected by the people for a maximum term of five years in a "first past the post" system.
Regional corporations and municipalities of Trinidad and Tobago
Trinidad is split into 14regions and municipalities, consisting of nine regions and five municipalities, which have a limited level of autonomy.[16][11] The various councils are made up of a mixture of elected and appointed members. Elections are held every three years.[citation needed] Tobago is administered by theTobago House of Assembly. The country was formerly divided intocounties.
The two main national parties are thePeople's National Movement (PNM) and theUnited National Congress (UNC). They both areleft of centre parties and support for these parties appears to fall along ethnic lines rather than ideology, with the PNM consistently obtaining a majority of Afro-Trinidadian vote, and the UNC gaining a majority of Indo-Trinidadian support. Several smaller parties also exist. As of the August 2020 General Elections, there were 19 registered political parties. These include, the Progressive Empowerment Party, Trinidad Humanity Campaign, New National Vision, Movement for Social Justice, Congress of the People, Movement for National Development,Progressive Democratic Patriots, National Coalition for Transformation, Progressive Party, Independent Liberal Party, Democratic Party of Trinidad and Tobago, National Organisation of We the People, Unrepresented Peoples Party, Trinidad and Tobago Democratic Front, The National Party, One Tobago Voice, and Unity of the Peoples.[124]
The Trinidad and Tobago Defence Force (TTDF) is the military organisation responsible for the defence of the twin island Republic of Trinidad and Tobago.[16] It consists of theRegiment, the Coast Guard, theAir Guard and theDefence Force Reserves. Established in 1962 after Trinidad and Tobago's independence from the United Kingdom, the TTDF is one of the largest military forces in the Anglophone Caribbean.[citation needed]
Its mission statement is to "defend the sovereign good of The Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, contribute to the development of the national community and support the State in the fulfilment of its national and international objectives". The Defence Force has been engaged in domestic incidents, such as theBlack Power Movement of 1970 andJamaat al Muslimeen coup attempt, and international missions, such as theUnited Nations Mission in Haiti between 1993 and 1996.
Trinidad and Tobago maintains close relations with itsCaribbean neighbours and major North American and European trading partners. As the most industrialised and second-largest country in the Anglophone Caribbean, Trinidad and Tobago has taken a leading role in theCaribbean Community (CARICOM), and strongly supports CARICOM economic integration efforts. It also is active in theSummit of the Americas process and supports the establishment of theFree Trade Area of the Americas, lobbying other nations for seating the Secretariat in Port of Spain.[citation needed]
As a member of CARICOM, Trinidad and Tobago strongly backed efforts by the United States to bring political stability toHaiti, contributing personnel to the Multinational Force in 1994. After its 1962 independence from the United Kingdom, Trinidad and Tobago joined theUnited Nations andCommonwealth of Nations. In 1967 it became the first Commonwealth country to join theOrganization of American States (OAS).[127] In 1995 Trinidad played host to the inaugural meeting of theAssociation of Caribbean States and has become the seat of this 35-member grouping, which seeks to further economic progress and integration among its states. In international forums, Trinidad and Tobago has defined itself as having an independent voting record, but often supports US and EU positions.[128][129]
The primary law enforcement agency of Trinidad and Tobago is theTrinidad and Tobago Police Service under the Ministry of Homeland Security. The current minister isRoger Alexander.[130] On June 13, 2025 the House of Representatives approved a government motion for Acting Senior Superintendent of Police Allister Guevarro to be Commissioner of Police (CoP).[131] Another law enforcement agency is the Trinidad and Tobago Municipal Police Service (TTMPS) under the Ministry of Rural Development and Local Government. They work within the various city, borough, and regional corporations.[132] The current minister isKhadijah Ameen with the administrator of the TTMPS being Assistant Commissioner of Police (ACP) Surrendra Sagramsingh[133] Some other law enforcement agencies include:[134]
The Trinidad and Tobago Forensic Science Centre began operations on December 1, 1983. They useforensic pathology andforensic science to collect, analyze and interpret all aspects of physical evidence submitted by police officers and other clients.[135]
The Immigration Division of Trinidad and Tobago: they are the principal government agency responsible for the administration and enforcement of immigration,passport and citizenship laws.[136]
The Strategic Services Agency (SSA): Their primary purpose is to gather and analyze intelligence related to serious crime, including drug trafficking, organized crime, and threats to national security.[137]
Trinidad and Tobago Customs and Excise Division: They are responsible for enforcement of customs and excise laws.[138]
TheFinancial Intelligence Unit of Trinidad and Tobago (FIUTT) became operational in February 2010. Their responsibilities are to implement the anti-money laundering and anti-terrorism policies of theFinancial Action Task Force (FATF).[139]
Ministry of Agriculture, Land and Fisheries
The Praedial Larceny Squad (PLS) was established in November 2013 with the responsibility to reduce incidences ofpraedial larceny in the country.[140]
Ministry of Works and Transport
Traffic Warden Division was established in 2011. They assist the Police with the management, control and regulation of road traffic in Trinidad and Tobago.[141]
Trinidad and Tobago has in recent decades suffered from a relatively high crime rate;[142][143] there are currently roughly 500 murders per year.[144][72] The country is a noted transshipment centre for the trafficking of illegal drugs from South America to the rest of the Caribbean and beyond to North America.[145] Some estimates put the size of the "hidden economy" as high as 20–30% of measured GDP.[146] On July 18, 2022 Prime Minister Dr Keith Rowley announced his government will look at the issue of violence and crime from a public health perspective.[147] Also that a committee was formed with the task with defining the issue and developing a plan of action.[147]
Though there have been no terrorism-related incidents in the country since theJamaat al Muslimeen coup attempt in 1990, Trinidad and Tobago remains a potential target and it is estimated that roughly 100 citizens of the country have traveled to theMiddle East to fight for theIslamic State.[142][143] In 2017, the government adopted a counter-terrorism and extremism strategy.[143] In 2018, a terror threat at theTrinidad and Tobago Carnival was thwarted by law enforcement.[148]
The country's prison administration is the Trinidad and Tobago Prison Service (TTPrS), it is currently under the control of the Commissioner of Prisons (Ag.) Hayden Forde,[149] who replaced Carlos Corraspe,[150] located in Port-of-Spain.[151] The prison population rate is 292 people per 100,000. The total prison population, including pre-trial detainees and remand prisoners, is 3,999 prisoners. The population rate of pre-trial detainees and remand prisoners is 174 per 100,000 of the national population (59.7% of the prison population). In 2018, the female prison population rate is 8.5 per 100,000 of the national population (2.9% of the prison population). Prisoners that are minors makes up 1.9% of the prison population and foreigners prisoners make 0.8% of the prison population.
The occupancy level of Trinidad and Tobago's prison system is at 81.8% capacity as of 2019.[151] Trinidad and Tobago has nine prison establishments; Golden Grove Prison, Maximum Security Prison, Port of Spain Prison, Eastern Correctional Rehabilitation Centre, Remand Prison, Tobago Convict Prison, Carrera Convict Island Prison, Women's Prison and Youth Training and Rehabilitation Centre.[152] Trinidad and Tobago also use labour yards as prisons, or means of punishment.[153]
Trinidad and Tobago, situated in a region susceptible to natural disasters like earthquakes, hurricanes, and flooding, as well as man-made disasters such as oil spills, has a multi-layered disaster management system.[154]
The Ministry of Rural Development and Local Government, along with regional and municipal corporations, are the first responders to major disasters. Each corporation maintains a Disaster Management Unit (DMU) responsible for managing all phases of extreme weather events within their local area.[155] In Tobago, the Tobago Emergency Management Agency (TEMA), under the Tobago House of Assembly, handles disaster and emergency management.[156] The Trinidad and Tobago Fire Service acts as the primary emergency response agency.
The Office of Disaster Preparedness and Management (ODPM), under the Ministry of Homeland Security, serves as the strategic coordinating agency. It plans, prepares, coordinates, and manages disaster response for the entire nation, and also coordinates Trinidad and Tobago's response to regional disasters.[157]
The Ministry of Energy and Energy Industries is responsible for the National Oil Spill Contingency Plan, coordinating all efforts related to oil spills on land and sea.[158]
The ethnic composition of Trinidad and Tobago reflects a history of conquest and immigration.[162] While the earliest inhabitants were of indigenous heritage, the two dominant groups in the country are now those of Indian-South Asian heritage and those of sub-Saharan African heritage.
Painting of Indo-Trinidadians on an estate in the early 20th century
Indo-Trinidadian and Tobagonians make up the country's largest ethnic group (approximately 35.4%);[16] they are primarily the descendants ofindentured workers from India,[163] brought to replace freed (formerly enslaved) Afro–Trinidadians who refused to continue working on the sugar plantations. Through cultural preservation many residents of Indian descent continue to maintain traditions from their ancestral homeland. Indo-Trinidadians reside primarily on Trinidad; as of the 2011 census only 2.5% of Tobago's population was of Indian descent.[164]
Lithograph of Afro-Trinidadians in the mid-19th century
Afro-Trinidadians make up the country's second largest ethnic group, with approximately 34.2% of the population identifying as being of African descent.[16] The majority of people of an African background are the descendants ofenslaved West Africans forcibly transported to the islands from as early as the 16th century. This group constitute the majority on Tobago, at 85.2%.[164]
There is aCocoa Panyol community in Trinidad and Tobago whose ancestors were migrant labourers of mixed Spanish, indigenous, and African descent who came from Venezuela between the late 19th and early 20th century to work on the cocoa estates.[165]
The vast majority of people in Trinidad and Tobago speakEnglish, the country's official language. However, the most commonly spoken language of the country isTrinidadian andTobagonian Creole, which stem from languages that reflects the nation's multicultural influences and colonial history.[166]
These two widely spoken creoles incorporate vocabulary and grammar structures that derive from African, Indian, European, and Indigenous influence.[167][168]
Languages such asSpanish andTrinidadian Hindustani are also spoken by smaller communities in Trinidad. Trinidadian Hindustani was brought byIndian indentured laborers who arrived in the mid-19th century. Over time, however, both Spanish and Trinidadian Hindustani have declined in everyday use and are now largely preserved through cultural, religious, and familial traditions.[169][170]
TheDjab-Djab is a carnival character brought over from Grenada that is still used in both islands, the word Djab-Djab comes from Grenadian/Trinidadian French Creole.
In Trinidad another creole is spoke called “Trinidadian Creole French”. The language was brought over from Grenada, Martinique and Guadeloupe.[171] Trinidadian Creole French is very similar to Grenadian French Creole. The language was a core part of Trinidadian identity and was used in a variety of songs, and other media (such as the song Gadé Zinah byMighty Sparrow) This creole was lingua franca[172]on the island for many decades in the 19th century, after it was brought over in 1783 with theCedula Immigration. Many words such as “Bakanal” and “dingolay” are from Trinidadian French creole.[173] The language now is somewhat dying and is only spoken in a few villages such asParamin andBlanchieusse, however multiple people are trying to revive the language and there are ongoing efforts all over the Caribbean[174] to preserve their French creoles.[175]
Roti shop sign in English in Port of Spain,buss up shut (paratha) is a type of roti
Trinidadian Hindustani,Trinidadian Bhojpuri,Trinidadian Hindi,Indian,Plantation Hindustani, orGaon ke Bolee (Village Speech) are names for the variety ofHindustani spoken in Trinidad and Tobago.[59] A majority of the early Indian indentured immigrants spoke theBhojpuri andAwadhi dialects, which later formed into Trinidadian Hindustani. In 1935, Indian movies began showing to audiences in Trinidad. Most of the Indian movies were in theStandard Hindustani (Hindi-Urdu) dialect and this modified Trinidadian Hindustani slightly by adding StandardHindi andUrdu phrases and vocabulary to Trinidadian Hindustani. Indian movies also revitalized Hindustani among Indo-Trinidadian and Tobagonians.[176] The British colonial government and estate owners had disdain and contempt for Hindustani and Indian languages in Trinidad. Due to this, many Indians saw it as a broken language keeping them in poverty and bound to the cane fields, and did not pass it on as afirst language, but rather as aheritage language, as they favored English as a way out.[177] Around the mid to late 1960s thelingua franca of Indo-Trinidadian and Tobagonians switched from Trinidadian Hindustani to a sort ofHindinized version of English. Today Hindustani survives on throughIndo-Trinidadian and Tobagonian musical forms such as,Bhajan, Indian classical music, Indian folk music,Filmi,Pichakaree,Chutney,Chutney soca, andChutney parang. As of 2003, there are about 15,633 Indo-Trinidadian and Tobagonians who speak Trinidadian Hindustani and as of 2011, there are about 10,000 who speak Standard Hindi. Many Indo-Trinidadians and Tobagonians today speak a type ofHinglish that consists of Trinidadian and Tobagonian English that is heavily laced with Trinidadian Hindustani vocabulary and phrases and many Indo-Trinidadians and Tobagonians can recite phrases or prayers in Hindustani today. There are many places in Trinidad and Tobago that have names of Hindustani origin. Some phrases and vocabulary have even made their way into the mainstream English and English Creole dialect of the country.[178][179][180][181][59][182]World Hindi Day is celebrated each year on 10 January with events organized by the National Council of Indian Culture, Hindi Nidhi Foundation, Indian High Commission, Mahatma Gandhi Institute for Cultural Co-operation, and theSanatan Dharma Maha Sabha.[183]
Spanish can be found in many place names, shown here the city of San Fernando
In 2014,Spanish was the native language of around 4,000 people (or 0.3% of the total population) living in Trinidad and Tobago. The number has grown substantially referred to the massive immigration of Venezuelans due to theongoing crisis in that country.
The Tamil language is spoken by some of the olderTamil (Madrasi) Indo-Trinidadian and Tobagonian population. It is mostly spoken by the few remaining children of indentured Indian labourers from the present-day state ofTamil Nadu inIndia. Other speakers of the language are recent immigrants from Tamil Nadu.[184]
A majority of the people who immigrated in the 19th century were fromsouthern China and spoke theHakka andYue dialects of Chinese. In the 20th century after the years of indentureship up to the present-day more Chinese people have immigrated to Trinidad and Tobago for business and they speak the dialects of the indenturees along with other Chinese dialects, such asMandarin andMin.[185][186] J. Dyer Ball, writing in 1906, says: "In Trinidad there were, about twenty years ago, 4,000 or 5,000 Chinese, but they have decreased to probably about 2,000 or 3,000, [2,200 in 1900]. They used to work in sugar plantations, but are now principally shopkeepers, as well as general merchants, miners and railway builders,etc."[187]
Trinidad and Tobago is religiously diverse, with the population practicing a wide range of faiths. As of 2020, Christianity remains the largest religion, followed by Hinduism and Islam.[188]
Hinduism, practiced by approximately 22.7%, is the second-largest religion. It is most visible in Indo-Trinidadian communities, especially in central Trinidad.Diwali is a national holiday, and numerous Hindu organizations are active, most prominently theSanatan Dharma Maha Sabha andArya Samaj.
Islam is practiced by 5.9% of the population, mainly among Indo-Trinidadians and Afro-Trinidadians.Eid al-Fitr is a national holiday, and other Muslim observances such asEid al-Adha andHosay are widely recognized.
Children generally start pre-school at two and a half years but this is not mandatory. They are, however, expected to have basic reading and writing skills when they commence primary school. Students begin primary school at age five and move on to secondary after seven years. The seven classes of primary school consists of First Year and Second Year, followed by Standard One through Standard Five. During the final year of primary school, students prepare for and sit the Secondary Entrance Assessment (SEA) which determines the secondary school the child will attend.[195]
Students attend secondary school for a minimum of five years, leading to the CSEC (Caribbean Secondary Education Certificate) examinations, which is the equivalent of the British GCSE O levels. Children with satisfactory grades may opt to continue high school for a further two-year period, leading to the Caribbean Advanced Proficiency Examinations (CAPE), the equivalent of GCE A levels. Both CSEC and CAPE examinations are held by the Caribbean Examinations Council (CXC). Public Primary and Secondary education is free for all, although private and religious schooling is available for a fee.
Tertiary education for tuition costs are provided for via GATE (The Government Assistance for Tuition Expenses), up to the level of the bachelor's degree, at the University of the West Indies (UWI), theUniversity of Trinidad and Tobago (UTT), theUniversity of the Southern Caribbean (USC), theCollege of Science, Technology and Applied Arts of Trinidad and Tobago (COSTAATT) and certain other local accredited institutions. Government also currently subsidises some Masters programmes. Both the Government and the private sector also provide financial assistance in the form of academic scholarships to gifted or needy students for study at local, regional or international universities. Trinidad and Tobago was ranked 108th in theGlobal Innovation Index in 2024, down from 91st in 2019.[196][197][198][199]
This section needs to beupdated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.(May 2025)
Piarco International Airport
Trinidad and Tobago is the most developed nation and one of the wealthiest in the Caribbean and is listed in the top 40 (2010 information) of the 70high-income countries in the world.[citation needed] Its gross national income per capita of US$20,070[201] (2014 gross national income at Atlas Method) is one of the highest in the Caribbean.[202] In November 2011, theOECD removed Trinidad and Tobago from its list ofdeveloping countries.[203] Trinidad's economy is strongly influenced by thepetroleum industry. Tourism and manufacturing are also important to the local economy. Tourism is a growing sector, particularly on Tobago, although proportionately it is much less important than in many other Caribbean islands. Agricultural products include citrus and cocoa. It also supplies manufactured goods, notably food, beverages, and cement, to the Caribbean region.
The oil refinery atPointe-à-Pierre. A strong petrochemical and oil industry has boosted the economy and the country is less reliant on tourism or agriculture
Trinidad and Tobago is the leading Caribbean producer of oil and gas, and its economy is heavily dependent upon these resources.[11] Oil and gas account for about 40% of GDP and 80% of exports, but only 5% of employment.[16] Recent growth has been fuelled by investments in liquefied natural gas (LNG), petrochemicals, and steel. Additional petrochemical, aluminium, and plastics projects are in various stages of planning.
The country is also a regional financial centre, and the economy has a growing trade surplus.[101] The expansion ofAtlantic LNG over the past six years created the largest single-sustained phase of economic growth in Trinidad and Tobago. The nation is an exporter of LNG and supplied a total of 13.4 billion m3 in 2017. The largest markets for Trinidad and Tobago's LNG exports are Chile and the United States.[204]
Trinidad and Tobago has transitioned from an oil-based economy to a natural gas based economy. In 2017, natural gas production totalled 18.5 billion m3, a decrease of 0.4% from 2016 with 18.6 billion m3 of production.[204] Oil production has decreased over the past decade from 7.1 million metric tonnes per year in 2007 to 4.4 million metric tonnes per year in 2017.[205] In December 2005, the Atlantic LNG's fourth production module or "train" for liquefied natural gas (LNG) began production. Train four has increased Atlantic LNG's overall output capacity by almost 50% and is the largest LNG train in the world at 5.2 million tons/year of LNG.[citation needed] According to an article in theTrinidad Guardian, South Korea imported methanol from Trinidad and Tobago to the amount of US$286 million in 2022 and US$186 million in 2023.[206]
Trinidad and Tobago is far less dependent on tourism than many other Caribbean countries and territories, with the bulk of tourist activity occurring on Tobago.[11] The government has made efforts to boost this sector in recent years.[11]
Some of the attractions of the island are its street food culture and cultural events, and Aripita Avenue in Port of Spain is one noted place for this.[207]
Maracas falls, is over 90 meter falls the tallest in the country (seeMaracas Valley)
Historically agricultural production including sugar and coffee dominated the economy, with sugar cane earning the most money, and providing the most employment. Some of the sugar produced was eaten in Trinidad but most of it was sold toUnited Kingdom,Canada, andUnited States. Cocoa was the second most valuable crop, and covers more area than sugar cane. Sugar production ceased around 2010 or so due to deflated prices of the time and high production costs.
Most farmers grow cocoa to sell to other countries that cannot grow it themselves. Trinidad was once the second biggest producer of cocoa afterEcuador, but this would not last long. As countries inWest Africa andSouth America began growing cocoa at a lower price, Trinidad lost many of its customers.[208]
Agriculture has been in steep decline since the 20th century and now forms just 0.4% of the country's GDP and employs 3.1% of the workforce.[16][11] Various fruits and vegetables are grown, such as cucumbers, eggplant, cassava, pumpkin, dasheen (taro) and coconut, and fishing is still also commonly practised.[16]
Trinidad and Tobago, in an effort to undergo economic transformation through diversification,[16] formedInvesTT in 2012 to serve as the country's sole investment promotion agency. This agency is aligned to the Ministry of Trade and Industry and is to be the key agent in growing the country's non-oil and gas sectors significantly and sustainably.[209]
Many restaurants serve Trinidad and Tobago dishes such as Roti or doubles. Fresh cut coconut water and jelly is another popular item
Trinidad and Tobago is home to the largest brewery company inCARICOM, theCarib Brewery. It also has a number of food production facilities including a Nestle plant. Because the island has less land and a higher income than average there is a tendency to import food, nevertheless there is local production of many products including milk, chocolate, coconuts, and alcoholic beverages among others.[210] In 2022, the output of the Food, Beverage, and Tobacco industry was almost 8 billion Trinidian dollars.[211]
An example of a restaurant chain in Trinidad and Tobago isRoyal Castle.[212]
Trinidad and Tobago has a well developed communications sector. The telecommunications and broadcasting sectors generated an estimated TT$5.63 billion (US$0.88 billion) in 2014, which as a percentage of GDP equates to 3.1 percent. This represented a 1.9 percent increase in total revenues generated by this industry compared to last year. Of total telecommunications and broadcasting revenues, mobile voice services accounted for the majority of revenues with TT$2.20 billion (39.2 percent). This was followed by internet services which contributed TT$1.18 billion or 21.1 percent. The next highest revenue earners for the industry were fixed voice services and paid television services whose contributions totalled TT$0.76 billion and TT$0.70 billion respectively (13.4 percent and 12.4 percent). International voice services was next in line, generating TT$0.27 billion (4.7 percent) in revenues. Free-to Air radio and television services contributed TT$0.18 billion and TT$0.13 billion respectively (3.2 percent and 2.4 percent). Finally, other contributors included "other revenues" and "leased line services" with earnings of TT$0.16 billion and TT$0.05 billion respectively, with 2.8 percent and 0.9 percent.[213]
There are several providers for each segment of the telecommunications market. Fixed Lines Telephone service is provided byDigicel,TSTT (operating asbmobile) andCable & Wireless Communications operating asFLOW; cellular service is provided byTSTT (operating as bmobile) and Digicel whilst internet service is provided byTSTT,FLOW,Digicel, Green Dot and Lisa Communications.
The Government of Trinidad and Tobago has recognised the creative industries as a pathway to economic growth and development. It is one of the newest, most dynamic sectors where creativity, knowledge and intangibles serve as the basic productive resource. In 2015, theTrinidad and Tobago Creative Industries Company Limited (CreativeTT) was established as a state agency under the Ministry of Trade and Industry with a mandate to stimulate and facilitate the business development and export activities of the Creative Industries in Trinidad and Tobago to generate national wealth, and, as such, the company is responsible for the strategic and business development of the three niche areas and sub sectors currently under its purview –Music, Film and Fashion.MusicTT,FilmTT andFashionTT are the subsidiaries established to fulfil this mandate.
The transport system in Trinidad and Tobago consists of a dense network of highways and roads across both major islands, ferries connecting Port of Spain with Scarborough andSan Fernando, and international airports on both islands.[11] TheUriah Butler Highway,Churchill Roosevelt Highway and theSir Solomon Hochoy Highway links the island of Trinidad together, whereas theClaude Noel Highway is the only major highway in Tobago. Public transportation options on land are public buses, private taxis and minibuses. By sea, the options are inter-island ferries and inter-city water taxis.[214]
The island of Trinidad is served byPiarco International Airport located inPiarco, which opened on 8 January 1931.[215] Sitting at an elevation of 17.4 metres (57 ft)above sea level, it comprises an area of 680 hectares (1,700 acres) and has a runway of 3,200 metres (10,500 ft). The airport consists of two terminals, the North Terminal and the South Terminal. The older South Terminal underwent renovations in 2009 for use as a VIP entrance point during the fifth Summit of the Americas. The North Terminal was completed in 2001, and consists of[216] 14-second-level aircraft gates with jetways for international flights, two ground-level domestic gates and 82 ticket counter positions. Piarco International Airport was named the Best Airport in the Caribbean in 2023 by international air transport rating organisation Skytrax. According to theTrinidad and Tobago Guardian "This is the third consecutive year that Piarco has copped this award."[217]
In 2008, the passenger throughput at Piarco International Airport was approximately 2.6 million. It is the seventh busiest airport in the Caribbean and the third busiest in the English-speaking Caribbean, afterSangster International Airport andLynden Pindling International Airport.[citation needed] Caribbean Airlines, the national airline, operates its main hub at the Piarco International Airport and services the Caribbean, the United States, Canada and South America. The airline is wholly owned by the Government of Trinidad and Tobago. After an additional cash injection of US$50 million, the Trinidad and Tobago government acquired the Jamaican airlineAir Jamaica on 1 May 2010, with a 6–12-month transition period to follow.[218]
The Island of Tobago is served by theA.N.R. Robinson International Airport inCrown Point.[11] This airport has regular services to North America and Europe. There are regular flights between the two islands, with fares being heavily subsidised by the Government.
Trinidad was formerly home to arailway network, however this was closed down in 1968.[219] There have been talks to build a new railway on the islands, though nothing yet has come of this.[220]
According to an article in theTrinidad Guardian, Trinidad and Tobago has about 500 vehicles for every 1000 persons. It also gives a Central Bank estimate of US$300.8 million spent by automotive companies in 2024 with around 13% being for vehicle imports from South Korea.[206]
Trinidad and Tobago is the region's leading exporter of oil and gas but imports of fossil fuels provided over 90% of the energy consumed by its CARICOM neighbours in 2008. This vulnerability led CARICOM to develop an Energy Policy which was approved in 2013. This policy is accompanied by the CARICOM Sustainable Energy Roadmap and Strategy (C-SERMS). Under the policy, renewable energy sources are to contribute 20% of the total electricity generation mix in member states by 2017, 28% by 2022 and 47% by 2027.[221]
In 2014 Trinidad and Tobago was the third country in the world which emitted the most CO2 per capita afterQatar andCuracao according to the World Bank.[222] On average, each inhabitant produced 34.2 metric tons of CO2 in the atmosphere. In comparison, the world average was 5.0 tons per capita the same year. Over recent years CO2 emissions have declined, so that in 2021 at 21.01 tonnes per capita,[223] Trinidad and Tobago ranked fourth, after the tiny countries smaller than half a million, such asCuracao, are excluded, and is the only non-Middle East country in the remaining worst sevenCO2 emitters on a per capita basis.[224]
In terms ofemissions intensity of economy (defined as CO2 emissions per unit ofGDP), Trinidad and Tobago ranked third globally.[223] Its emissions-source profile is unique amongst the worst CO2 intensity emitters as the so-called "other sectors", which includes: industrial process emissions, agricultural soils and waste, accounts for more than fifty per cent of fossil CO2 emissions, rather than the power industry, other industrial combustion, transport and buildings sectors.[224]
The Caribbean Industrial Research Institute in Trinidad and Tobago facilitates climate change research and provides industrial support for R&D related to food security. It also carries out equipment testing and calibration for major industries.[221]
Trinidad and Tobago has a diverse culture with African, Indian, Creole, European, Chinese, Indigenous, Latin American, and Arab influences, reflecting the various communities who have migrated to the islands over the centuries.
Steelpan music, the limbo dance competition, and carnival with its elaborate costumes, and Caribbean street foods are some of the famous cultures of the islands.
Of these one of the most famous isdoubles, which is twobara (fried flatbread) withchanna (curried chickpeas) with various condiments likechutneys,kuchela, and pepper sauce. This is the most popular street food in the country.[230] Doubles are popular late-night snack or breakfast, are thought to have been invented in 1936 on Trinidad.[231]
Types of food that are popular are street food, celebration foods, deserts, and condiments like various chutneys.[232][229] Fresh coconut water, rum,Mauby, are some examples.[232][233] Having a fresh coconut water with "jelly", bitters, various mixed drinks, sorrel, are among noted beverages of the islands.[233] Trinidadiangyros andshawarma are other noted food item, which was popularized by Lebanese and Syrian migrants to the islands.[234]
Thelimbo dance originated in Trinidad as an event that took place atwakes in Trinidad. The limbo has African roots. It was popularized in the 1950s by dance pioneerJulia Edwards[235] (known as the "First Lady of Limbo") and her company which appeared in several films.[236]Bélé, Bongo, and wining are also dance forms with African roots.[237]
In 2018, The Court of Arbitration for Sport made its final decision on the failed doping sample from the Jamaican team in the 4 x 100 relay in the 2008 Olympic Games. The team from Trinidad and Tobago will be awarded the gold medal, because of the second rank during the relay run.[258]
In 2024, Trinidadian sprinterLeah Bertrand competed in the 2024 Paris Olympics for the first time.[259][260] Overall, TT sent about 17 athletes to the 2024 games, including noted athletes Michelle-Lee Ahye (springer), Jereem Richards (200m and 400m), Dylan Carter (swimming), Keshorn Walcott (javelin), Nicholas Paul (cyclist). Keshorn Walcott is previous Olympic medal winner, have won Gold and bronze.[261]
The team, coached byDutchmanLeo Beenhakker, and led by Tobagonian-born captainDwight Yorke, drew their first group game – againstSweden inDortmund, 0–0, but lost the second game toEngland on late goals, 0–2. They were eliminated after losing 2–0 toParaguay in the last game of the Group stage.
Prior to the 2006 World Cup qualification, Trinidad and Tobago came close in a controversial qualification campaign for the1974 FIFA World Cup. Following the match, the referee of their critical game againstHaiti was awarded a lifetime ban for his actions.[263] Trinidad and Tobago again fell just short of qualifying for the World Cup in1990, needing only a draw at home against theUnited States but losing 1–0.[264]
TheTT Pro League is the country's primary football competition and is the top level of theTrinidad and Tobago football league system. The Pro League serves as a league for professional football clubs in Trinidad and Tobago. The league began in 1999 as part of a need for a professional league to strengthen the country'snational team and improve the development of domestic players. The first season took place in the same year beginning with eight teams.
Basketball is commonly played in Trinidad and Tobago in colleges, universities and throughout various urban basketball courts. Its national team is one of the most successful teams in the Caribbean. At theCaribbean Basketball Championship it won four straight gold medals from 1986 to 1990.[265]
Trinidad rugby players of Rugby Club Toulonnais, 2014
Netball has long been a popular sport in Trinidad and Tobago, although it has declined in popularity in recent years. At theNetball World Championships they co-won the event in 1979, were runners up in 1987, and second runners up in 1983.
Rugby is played in Trinidad and Tobago and continues to be a popular sport, andhorse racing is regularly followed in the country.[266]
There is also the Trinidad and Tobago national baseball team which is controlled by the Baseball/Softball Association of Trinidad and Tobago, and represents the nation in international competitions. The team is a provisional member of thePan American Baseball Confederation.
There are a number of 9 and 18-holegolf courses on Trinidad and Tobago. The most established is the St Andrews Golf Club, Maraval in Trinidad (commonly referred to as Moka), and there is a newer course at Trincity, near Piarco Airport called Millennium Lakes. There are 18-hole courses at Chaguramas and Point-a-Pierre and nine-hole courses at Couva and St Madeline. Tobago has two 18-hole courses. The older of the two is at Mount Irvine, with the Magdalena Hotel & Golf Club (formerly Tobago Plantations) being built more recently.[267]
Although a minor sport, bodybuilding is of growing interest in Trinidad and Tobago.Darrem Charles, a former world class body builder, is from Trinidad and Tobago.
Dragonboat is also another water-sport that has been rapidly growing over the years. Introduced in 2006. the fraternity made consistent strides in having more members a part of the TTDBF (Trinidad and Tobago Dragonboat Federation) as well as performing on an international level such as the 10th IDBF World Nations Dragon Boat Championships in Tampa, Florida in the US in 2011.[268]
Claude Noel is a former world champion in professional boxing. He was born in Tobago.[269]
The flag of Trinidad and TobagoThe coat of arms of Trinidad and TobagoThe chaconia (Warszewiczia coccinea) is the national flower of Trinidad and TobagoScarlet ibis
The flag was chosen by the Independence committee in 1962. Red, black and white symbolise the warmth of the people, the richness of the earth and water respectively.[270][271]
The national flower of Trinidad and Tobago is thechaconia flower. It was chosen as the national flower because it is an indigenous flower that has witnessed the history of Trinidad and Tobago. It was also chosen as the national flower because of its red colour that resembles the red of the national flag and coat of arms and because it blooms around the Independence Day of Trinidad and Tobago.[278]
The national birds of Trinidad and Tobago are thescarlet ibis and thecocrico. The scarlet ibis is kept safe by the government by living in the Caroni Bird Sanctuary which was set up by the government for the protection of these birds. The Cocrico is more indigenous to the island of Tobago and is more likely to be seen in the forest.[279] Thehummingbird is considered another symbol of Trinidad and Tobago due to its significance to the Indigenous peoples, however, it is not a national bird.[280]
Thesteelpan was approved by both Houses of Parliament to be theNational instrument of Trinidad and Tobago on January 13 & 21, 2025. The steelpan is also featured in the Coat of Arms.[272][273]
^abcBoomert, Arie.Trinidad, Tobago and the Lower Orinoco Interaction Sphere: An archaeological/ethnohistorical study. Universiteit Leiden, 2000,ISBN90-90-13632-0
^Hart, Marie. (1965).The New Trinidad and Tobago, p. 13. London andGlasgow: Collins. Reprint 1972.
^"Republic of Trinidad and Tobago".osargenews.com.Archived from the original on 15 April 2021. Retrieved11 March 2021.Among those killed in the governor's party was Fr.Juan Mazien de Sotomayor, O.P., missionary priest to the Nepuyo villages of Cuara, Tacarigua and Arauca.
^Cazorla, Frank, Baena, Rose, Polo, David, Reder Gadow, Marion (2019). The Governor Louis de Unzaga (1717-1793) Pioneer in the birth of the United States and liberalism, Foundation, Malaga, pages: 21, 154–155, 163–165, 172, 188–191, 199.
^Brereton, Bridget (1996).An introduction to the history of Trinidad and Tobago. Oxford: Heinemann Educational Publishers. pp. 103–105.ISBN978-0-435-98474-8.
^Ryan, Selwyn (1991).The Muslimeen grab for power : race, religion, and revolution in Trinidad and Tobago. Port of Spain, Trinidad, West Indies: Inprint Caribbean. p. 82.ISBN9789766080310.
^"UNC Founder".United National Congress. 26 February 2013.Archived from the original on 28 August 2019. Retrieved23 August 2017.
^"Archived copy". Archived fromthe original on 27 September 2013. Retrieved25 May 2010.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) PNM lose to Peoples Partnership in Trinidad elections 2010.Ttgapers.com 24 May 2010.
^Skard, Torild (2014) "Kamla Persad-Bissessar" inWomen of power – half a century of female presidents and prime ministers worldwide, Bristol: Policy PressISBN978-1-44731-578-0, pp. 271–13.
^abBridget M. Brereton; Arthur Napoleon Raymond Robinson; David Watts."Trinidad and Tobago".Britannica.Archived from the original on 31 March 2021. Retrieved31 March 2021.
^Ministry of the Attorney General and Legal Affairs (31 December 2015)."Laws of Trinidad and Tobago Prisons Act".www.legalaffairs.gov.tt.Archived from the original on 24 April 2019. Retrieved13 February 2019.
^"Survey chapter: Trinidad English Creole".Atlas of Pidgin and Creole Language Structures Online. Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. Retrieved17 May 2025.
^Norrel A. London, "Ideology and politics in English-language education in Trinidad and Tobago: The colonial experience and a postcolonial critique."Comparative Education Review 47.3 (2003): 287–320.
^abcCrippa M, Guizzardi D, Banja M, Solazzo E, Muntean M, Schaaf E, Pagani F, Monforti-Ferrario F, Olivier JG, Quadrelli R, Risquez Martin A, Taghavi-Moharamli P, Grassi G, Rossi S, Oom D, Branco A, San-Miguel J, Vignati E (2022). CO2 emissions of all world countries – JRC/IEA/PBL 2022 Report (Report). Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union.doi:10.2760/07904.
^Esposito, Eleonora (2019). "Callaloo or Pelau? Food, identity and politics in Trinidad and Tobago". In Balirano, Giuseppe (ed.).Food Across Cultures. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 43–70.ISBN978-3-030-11153-3.
^Quevedo, Raymond (Atilla the Hun),Atilla'sKaiso: a short history of Trinidad calypso (1983). University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad. pp. 2–14.
†Physiographically, thesecontinental islands are not part of the volcanic Windward Islands arc, although sometimes grouped with them culturally and politically.
#Bermuda is an isolatedNorth Atlanticoceanic island, physiographically not part of the Lucayan Archipelago, Antilles, Caribbean Sea nor North American continental nor South American continental islands. It is grouped with theNorthern American region, but occasionally also with the Caribbean region culturally.
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