Trieste is located at the head of theGulf of Trieste, on a narrow strip of Italian territory lying between theAdriatic Sea andSlovenia; Slovenia lies close, at approximately 8 km (5 mi) east and 10–15 km (6–9 mi) southeast of the city, whileCroatia is about 30 km (19 mi) to the south of the city. The city has a long coastline and is surrounded by grassland, forest, andkarstic areas.
Trieste belonged, asTriest, to theHabsburg monarchy from 1382 until 1918. In the 19th century, the monarchy was one of theGreat Powers of Europe and Trieste was its most important seaport. As a prosperous trading hub in theMediterranean region, Trieste grew to become the fourth largest city of theAustro-Hungarian Empire (afterVienna,Budapest, andPrague). At the turn of the 20th century, it emerged as an important hub for literature and music. Trieste underwent an economic revival during the 1930s, and theFree Territory of Trieste became a major site of the struggle between theEastern andWestern blocs after theSecond World War.
A deep-water port, Trieste is a maritime gateway for northern Italy,Germany,Austria andCentral Europe. It is considered the end point of the maritimeSilk Road, with connections to the Mediterranean,Suez Canal andAtlantic Ocean. Since the 1960s, Trieste has emerged as a prominent research location in Europe because of its many international organisations and institutions. The city lies at the intersection ofLatin (due toItaly),Slavic (due toSlovenia andCroatia) andGermanic (due toAustria-Hungary) cultures, whereCentral Europe meets theMediterranean Sea, and is home to diverse ethnic groups and religious communities.
A scholarly area, Trieste has the highest percentage of researchers, per capita, in Europe.[5]Città della Barcolana ("City of theBarcolana"),Città della bora ("City of thebora"),Città del vento ("City of Wind"), "Vienna by the sea" and "City of Coffee" are epithets used to describe Trieste.
The most likely origin is the word,Tergeste – with the-est- suffix typical ofVenetic – and derived from the hypotheticalIllyrian word*terg- "market" (etymologically cognate to theAlbanian termtreg 'market, marketplace'[6] and reconstructedProto-Slavic "*tъrgъ")[6][7][8] Roman authors also transliterated the name asTergestum (according toStrabo, the name of theoppidum Tergestum originated from the three battles the Roman Army had to engage in with local tribes, "TER GESTUM [BELLUM]").
Arco di Riccardo, a Roman triumphal arch constructed from 33 to 32 BC
Since the second millennium BC, the location was an inhabited site. Originally anIllyrian settlement, theVeneti entered the region in the 10th–9th c. BC and seem to have given the town its name,Tergeste, becauseterg* is a Venetic word meaning market (q.v.Oderzo, whose ancient name wasOpitergium). Later, the town was captured by theCarni, a tribe of theEastern Alps, before becoming part of theRoman Republic in 177 BC during theSecond Istrian War.[9]
After being attacked by barbarians from the interior in 52 BC,[10] and until 46 BC, it was granted the status of Roman colony underJulius Caesar, who recorded its name asTergeste inCommentarii de Bello Gallico (51 BC), in which he recounts events of theGallic Wars.[11]
During the imperial period the border ofRoman Italy moved from theTimavo River to the Formione (todayRisano). Roman Tergeste flourished due to its position on the road fromAquileia, the main Roman city in the area, toIstria, and as a port, some ruins of which are still visible. EmperorAugustus built a line of walls around the city in 33–32 BC, whileTrajan built a theatre in the 2nd century. At the same time, the citizens of the town were enrolled in the tribe Pupinia. In 27 BC, Trieste was incorporated inRegio X of AugustanItalia.[12]
In the early Christian era Trieste continued to flourish. Between 138 and 161 AD, its territory was enlarged and nearbyCarni and Catali were granted Roman citizenship by the Roman Senate and Emperor Antoninus Pius at the pleading of a leading Tergestine citizen, thequaestor urbanus, Fabius Severus.[13]
Already at the time of the Roman Empire there was a fishing village called Vallicula ("small valley") in theBarcola area. Remains of richly decorated Roman villas, including wellness facilities, piers and extensive gardens suggest that Barcola was already a place for relaxation among the Romans because of its favourable microclimate, as it was located directly on the sea and protected from thebora. At that time,Pliny the Elder mentioned the vines of the wine Pulcino ("Vinum Pucinum" – probably today's "Prosecco"), which were grown on the slopes.[14]
During the 13th and 14th centuries, Trieste became a maritime trade rival to theRepublic of Venice, which briefly occupied it in 1283–87, before coming under the patronage of the Patriarchate of Aquileia.[citation needed] After it committed a perceived offence against Venice, the Venetian State declared war against Trieste in July 1368 and by November had occupied the city. Venice intended to keep the city and began rebuilding its defences, but was forced to leave in 1372. Due to the Peace of Turin in 1381, Venice renounced its claim to Trieste and the leading citizens of Trieste petitionedLeopold III ofHabsburg, Duke ofAustria, to annex Trieste to his domains. The agreement of voluntary submission (dedizione) was signed at thecastle of Graz on 30 September 1382.[15]
The city maintained a high degree of autonomy under the Habsburgs, but was increasingly losing ground as a trade hub, both to Venice and toRagusa. In 1463, a number of Istrian communities petitioned Veniceto attack Trieste. Trieste was saved from utter ruin by the intervention ofPope Pius II who had previously been bishop ofTrieste. However, Venice limited Trieste's territory to three miles (4.8 kilometres) outside the city. Trieste would be assaulted again in 1468–1469 by Holy RomanEmperor Frederick III. His sack of the city is remembered as the "Destruction of Trieste."[16] He then restored the city walls for the fourth time.[10] Trieste was fortunate to be spared another sack in 1470 by theOttomans who burned the village ofProsecco, only about 5.3 miles (8.5 kilometres) from Trieste, while on their way to attackFriuli.[17]
Following an unsuccessful Habsburg invasion of Venice in the prelude to the 1508–16War of the League of Cambrai, the Venetians occupied Trieste again in 1508, and were allowed to keep the city under the terms of the peace treaty.[18] However, theHabsburg Empire recovered Trieste a little over one year later, when the conflict resumed. By the 18th century Trieste became an important port and commercial hub for the Austrians.[19] In 1719, it was granted status as afree port within the Habsburg Empire byEmperor Charles VI, and remained a free port until 1 July 1791. The reign of his successor,Maria Theresa of Austria, marked the beginning of a very prosperous era for the city.Serbs settled Trieste largely in the 18th and 19th centuries, and they soon formed an influential and rich community within the city, as a number of Serbian traders came into ownership of many important businesses and built palaces across Trieste.[20]
In the following decades, Trieste was briefly occupied by troops of theFrench Empire during theNapoleonic Wars on several occasions, in 1797, 1805 and 1809. From 1809 to 1813, Trieste was annexed into theIllyrian Provinces, interrupting its status of free port and losing its autonomy. The municipal autonomy was not restored after the return of the city to theAustrian Empire in 1813. Following the Napoleonic Wars, Trieste continued to prosper as theFree Imperial City of Trieste (German:Reichsunmittelbare Stadt Triest), a status that granted economic freedom, but limited its political self-government. The city's role as Austria's main trading port and shipbuilding centre was later emphasised by the foundation of the merchant shipping lineAustrian Lloyd in 1836, whose headquarters stood at the corner of the Piazza Grande and Sanità (today'sPiazza Unità d'Italia). By 1913, Austrian Lloyd had a fleet of 62 ships totalling 236,000 tonnes.[21] With the introduction ofconstitutionalism in the Austrian Empire in 1860, the municipal autonomy of the city was restored, with Trieste becoming capital of theAustrian Littoral crown land (German:Österreichisches Küstenland).
The Stock Exchange Square in 1854Stock market in Trieste today
With anti-clericalism on the rise in the rest of the Italian peninsula due to the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardina's bellicose policies towards the church and its estates,Pope Leo XIII at times considered moving his residence to Trieste orSalzburg. However,Emperor Franz Joseph rejected the idea.[22] Trieste, along with Rijeka (Fiume), served as an important base for theImperial-Royal Navy, which in the first decade of the 20th century embarked on a major modernisation programme. With the construction of theAustrian Southern Railway, the first major railway in the Empire, in 1857, Trieste acquired a significant role in the trade of coal.
A view of Trieste in 1885
Trieste had long been home to Italian irredentist sentiment, as evidenced by the activity atCaffè Tommaseo [it;de].[23] In 1882 this fervour culminated in an attempted assassination of Emperor Franz Joseph at the hands of Wilhem Oberdank (Guglielmo Oberdan), while His Majesty was visiting the city. The perpetrator was arrested, tried, found guilty and ultimately sentenced to death. His legacy was regarded as worthy of martyrdom status by fellow irredentists, while monarchical elements regarded his actions as ignominious. The Emperor, who went on to reign for thirty-four more years, never again visited Trieste.[24]
In the late 1920s, following Italian fascists burning down of the Slovene cultural centre in July 1920, the Slovenemilitant anti-fascist organisationTIGR carried out several bomb attacks in the city centre. In 1930 and 1941, two trials of Slovene activists were held in Trieste by the fascist Special Tribunal for the Security of the State. During the 1920s and 1930s, several monumental buildings were built in theFascist architectural style, including theUniversity of Trieste and the almost 70 m (229.66 ft) tallVictory Lighthouse (Faro della Vittoria), which became a city landmark. The economy improved in the late 1930s, and several large infrastructure projects were carried out.[28]
Yugoslav Army entering Trieste (the caption reads: "Tito's Army liberated Trieste")
Following thetrisection of Slovenia, starting from the winter of 1941, the firstSlovene Partisans appeared in Trieste province, although the resistance movement did not become active in the city itself until late 1943.[29]
After theItalian armistice in September 1943, the city was occupied byWehrmacht troops. Trieste became nominally part of the newly constitutedItalian Social Republic, but it was de facto ruled by Germany, who created theOperation Zone of the Adriatic Littoral (OZAK) out of former Italian north-eastern regions, with Trieste as the administrative centre. The new administrative entity was headed byFriedrich Rainer, Gauleiter of Carinthia, named supreme commissary of the AK zone. A semblance of indigenous Italian rule was kept in the form of Cesare Pagnini, mayor of Trieste, but every civil official was assigned a representative of the supreme commissar in the form of a Deutsche Berater (German Adviser).[30] Under German occupation, the onlyconcentration camp with a crematorium on Italian soil was built in a suburb of Trieste, at theRisiera di San Sabba on 4 April 1944. From 20 October 1943, to the spring of 1944, around 25,000 Jews and partisans were interrogated and tortured in the Risiera. Three to four thousand of them were murdered here by shooting, beating or in gas vans. Most were imprisoned before being transferred to other concentration camps.[31][32]
The city saw intense Italian and Yugoslavpartisan activity and suffered fromAllied bombings, over 20 air raids in 1944–1945, targeting the oil refineries, port and marshalling yard but causing considerable collateral damage to the city and 651 deaths among the population.[33] The worst raid took place on 10 June 1944, when a hundred tons of bombs dropped by 40USAAF bombers, targeting the oil refineries, resulted in the destruction of 250 buildings, damage to another 700 and 463 victims.[34][35][36]
On 30 April 1945, the Slovenian and Italiananti-FascistOsvobodilna fronta (OF) and National Liberation Committee (Comitato di Liberazione Nazionale, or CLN) of Edoardo Marzari andAntonio Fonda Savio, made up of approximately 3,500 volunteers, incited a riot against the Nazi occupiers. On 1 MayAllied members of theYugoslav Partisans'8th Dalmatian Corps took over most of the city, except for the courts and the castle of San Giusto, where the German garrisons refused to surrender to anyone but the New Zealanders, due to the Partisans' reputation for shooting German and Italian prisoners of war.[37] The2nd New Zealand Division under GeneralFreyberg continued to advance towards Trieste along Route 14 around the northern coast of the Adriatic sea and arrived in the city the following day (see official historiesThe Italian Campaign[38] andThrough the Venetian Line).[39] The German forces surrendered on the evening of 2 May, but were then turned over to the Yugoslav forces.[40]
The Yugoslavs held full control of the city until 12 June, a period known in Italian historiography as the "forty days of Trieste".[41] During this period, hundreds of local Italians and anti-Communist Slovenes were arrested by the Yugoslav authorities, and many of them were never seen again.[42] Some were interned in Yugoslav internment camps (in particular atBorovnica, Slovenia), while others weremurdered on theKarst Plateau.[43] BritishField MarshalHarold Alexander condemned the Yugoslav military occupation, stating that "Marshal Tito's apparent intention to establish his claims by force of arms...[is] all too reminiscent of Hitler, Mussolini and Japan. It is to prevent such actions that we have been fighting this war."[44][45] In this most turbulent of periods, the city saw a thorough reorganisation of the political-administrative system: the Yugoslav Fourth Army, to which many figures of prominence were attached (includingEdvard Kardelj, a sign of just how important the Isonzo front was in Yugoslav aims) established a provisional Military Command in the occupied areas. Fully understanding the precarious position it found itself in, the Yugoslav Command undertook great efforts to claim the success for itself, faced with the presence of the2nd New Zealand Division under GeneralBernard Freyberg in Trieste, which could undermine, as it did, postwar claims of sovereignty and control over the seaport.[46] The journalist Geoffrey Cox wrote that it was "the first major confrontation of the Cold War" and was "the one corner of Europe where no demarcation line had been agreed upon in advance by the Allies."[47] To this effect, a Tanjug Agency communiqué stated: "The seaport of Trieste, Monfalcone and Gorizia could not be occupied by the above mentioned division [the New Zealand Division] as these cities had already been liberated...by the Yugoslav army...It is true that some Allied forces have without our permission entered into the above mentioned cities which might have undesirable consequences unless this misunderstanding is promptly settled by mutual agreement."[48]
After an agreement between the Yugoslav leaderJosip Broz Tito and Field Marshal Alexander, the Yugoslav forces withdrew from Trieste, which came under a joint British-U.S. military administration.[49] The Julian March was divided by theMorgan Line between Anglo-American and Yugoslav military administration until September 1947 when theParis Peace Treaty established theFree Territory of Trieste. The effective turning point for Trieste's fortunes had already been established, though: President Truman's stipulations, later named the Truman Doctrine, in all but name had sealed the status quo, formalised only in the above-mentioned treaty, one that proved to be a careful balancing act between Yugoslav demands, Italian claims and international aims toward the Adriatic gulf and Eastern Europe in general. Questions arose on the structure of government as soon and even earlier than the signing of the treaty, with neither Italy nor Yugoslavia willing to recognise a joint governor.[50] Initially, the newly established Allied Military Government (AMG) found it difficult to exercise its authority over the newly administered territories (the Italian majority provinces of Trieste, Gorizia and Pola), because of a rooted communist presence, especially in the countryside. This state of affairs did not change until a formal peace treaty with Italy had been signed, granting the AMG the full powers to administer justice and re-establish law and order in those areas under its administration. Replacing the People's Militia, the AMG recruited a civilian police force from the indigenous population along the Anglo-Saxon police model. This exercise of jurisdiction was thus articulated: pursuant to Proclamation No. 1, three tiers of tribunals were established: the Summary Military Courts, with jurisdiction over petty crime, the Superior Military Courts, which could impose punishments not exceeding 10 years imprisonment, and the General Military Court, which could impose the death penalty. Civil courts, as modelled on the Kingdom of Italy's code, were, pursuant to General Order No. 6, re-established 12 July 1945, but the Slovene minority was given the right to be heard, and for proceedings to be, in their own language.[51]
Cheering crowd for the return of Trieste to Italy on 4 November 1954
Zone A covered almost the same area of the current Italian Province of Trieste, except for four small villages south ofMuggia (see below), which were given to Yugoslavia after the dissolution of the Free Territory in 1954. Occupied Zone B, which was under the administration ofMiloš Stamatović, then a colonel in theYugoslav People's Army, was composed of the north-westernmost portion of the Istrian peninsula, between theMirna River and the capeDebeli Rtič.[54]
In 1954, in accordance with the Memorandum of London, the vast majority of Zone A—including the city of Trieste—joined Italy, whereas Zone B and four villages from Zone A (Plavje,Spodnje Škofije,Hrvatini, andElerji) became part of Yugoslavia, divided betweenSlovenia andCroatia. The final border line withYugoslavia and the status of the ethnic minorities in the areas was settled bilaterally in 1975 with theTreaty of Osimo.[55] This line now constitutes the border between Italy and Slovenia.[56]
Trieste is located in the northernmost part of the highAdriatic, in northeastern Italy, near the border withSlovenia. The city lies on the Gulf of Trieste. Built mostly on a hillside, Trieste's urban territory lies at the foot of an imposing escarpment that comes down abruptly from theKarst Plateau towards the sea. The karst hills delimiting the city reach an elevation of 458 metres (1,503 feet)above sea level. It lies at the junction point of the Italian geographical region, theBalkan Peninsula, andMitteleuropan Area.
Trieste's climate ishumid subtropical (Köppen:Cfa,Trewartha:Cf), with cool winters and hot summers. On average, relative humidity is low (~ 65%), while only three months (January, March and July) receive slightly less than 60 mm (2 in) of precipitation.
Trieste, like the Istrian Peninsula, has evenly distributed rainfall above 900 mm (35 in) in total; it is noteworthy that no true summer drought occurs.Snow occurs on average 2 days per year.[57]
Winter highs are lower than the average temperatures in the Mediterranean zone. Two basic weather patterns alternate — sunny, windy and often cold days frequently caused a northeastern wind called bora, and rainy days with temperatures of about 6 to 11 °C (43 to 52 °F).
Summer is very warm with highs of about 29 °C (84 °F) and lows above 20 °C (68 °F), with hot nights being influenced by the warm seawater. The highest temperature of the last 30 years is 40.1 °C (104 °F) in 2020, whereas the absolute minimum was −7.9 °C (18 °F) in 1996.
The Trieste area is divided into 8a–10a zones according to USDAhardiness zoning; Villa Opicina (320 to 420 MSL), with an 8a zone in the upper suburban area down to a 10a zone in the shielded and windproof valleys close to the Adriatic sea.
The climate can be severely affected by thebora, a very dry and usually cool north-to-northeastkatabatic wind that can last for some days and reach speeds of up to 140 km/h (87 mph) on the piers of the port, thus sometimes lowering temperatures to subzero levels.[58]
Climate data for Trieste (1991-2020 normals and extremes)
Barriera Nuova ·Borgo Giuseppino · Borgo Teresiano · Città Nuova · Città Vecchia · San Vito · San Giusto · Campi Elisi · Sant'Andrea · Cavana
Barriera Vecchia (Stara Mitnica) · San Giacomo (Sveti Jakob) · Santa Maria Maddalena Superiore (Sveta Marija Magdalena Zgornja)
Cattinara (Katinara) · Chiadino (Slovene:Kadinj)[62] · San Luigi · Guardiella (Verdelj) · Longera (Slovene:Lonjer)[62] · San Giovanni (Sveti Ivan)·Rozzol (Slovene:Rocol)[62] · Melara
Chiarbola (Slovene:Čarbola)[62] · Coloncovez (Kolonkovec) · Santa Maria Maddalena Inferiore (Slovene:Spodnja Sveta Marija Magdalena)[62] · Raute · Santa Maria Maddalena Superiore (Slovene:Zgornja Sveta Marija Magdalena)[62] · Servola (Škedenj) · Poggi Paese · Poggi Sant'Anna (Sveta Ana)· Valmaura · Altura · Borgo San Sergio
The iconic city centre is Piazza Unità d'Italia, which is located between the large 19th-century avenues of Borgo Teresiano and the old medieval city, characterised by many narrow streets.
As of 2025, Trieste has a population of 198,668, of whom 48.3% were male and 51.7% were female. Minors make up 13.0% of the population, and pensioners who make up 28.4%. This compares with the Italian average of 14.9% and 24.7% respectively.[65] Between 2011 and 2021, the population of Trieste declined by 1.5%, while Italy as a whole declined 0.7%.[64]
Since the annexation to Italy after World War I, there has been a steady decline in Trieste's demographic weight compared to other cities. In 1911, Trieste was the 4th largest city in theAustro-Hungarian Empire (3rd largest inthe Austrian part of the Monarchy). In 1921, Trieste was the 8th largest city in the country,[66] in 1961 the 12th largest,[67] in 1981 the 14th largest,[68] while it is now in 15th place.[69]
There are 24,949 foreign-born residents in Trieste, representing 12.6% of the total population.[71][72] The largest native minorities are Slovenes, Croats and Serbs,[73] but there is also a large immigrant group from Balkan nations (particularly Serbia, Romania and Croatia): 4.95%, Asia: 0.52%, and sub-saharan Africa: 0.2%. The Serbian community consists of both autochthonous and immigrant groups.[74] Trieste is predominantly Roman Catholic.
The particular dialect of Trieste, called tergestino, spoken until the beginning of the 19th century, was surpassed in relevance by theTriestine dialect ofVenetian (a language deriving directly fromVulgar Latin) and other languages, including standardItalian,Slovene, andGerman. While Triestine and Italian were spoken by the largest part of the population, German was the language of the Austrian bureaucracy and Slovene was predominantly spoken in the surrounding villages. From the last decades of the 19th century, the number of speakers of Slovene grew steadily, reaching 25% of the overall population of Trieste in 1911.[75]
According to the 1911 census, the proportion of Slovene speakers grew to 12.6% in the city centre (15.9% counting only Austrian citizens), 47.6% in the suburbs (53% counting only Austrian citizens), and 90.5% in the surroundings.[76] They were the largest ethnic group in nine of the nineteen urban neighbourhoods of Trieste, and represented a majority in seven of them.[76] The Italian speakers, on the other hand, made up 60.1% of the population in the city centre, 38.1% in the suburbs, and 6.0% in the surroundings. They were the largest linguistic group in ten of the nineteen urban neighbourhoods, and represented the majority in seven of them (including all six in the city centre). German speakers amounted to 5% of the city's population, with the highest proportions in the city centre.
The city also had several other smaller ethnic communities, including Croats, Czechs,Istro-Romanians, Serbs and Greeks, who mostly assimilated either into the Italian or the Slovene-speaking communities. Altogether, in 1911, 51.83% of the population of the municipality of Trieste spoke Italian, 24.79% spoke Slovene, 5.2% spoke German, 1% spoke Croatian, 0.3% spoke "other languages", and 16.8% were foreigners, including a further 12.9% Italians (immigrants from the Kingdom of Italy and thus considered separately from Triestine Italians) and 1.6% Hungarians.[77]
By 1971, following the emigration of Slovenes to neighbouring Slovenia and the immigration of Italians from other regions (and from Yugoslav-annexed Istria) to Trieste, the percentage of Italian speakers had risen to 91.8%, and that of Slovenian speakers had dwindled to 5.7%.[78]
Today, the dominant local dialect of Trieste is "Triestine" (triestin, pronounced[tɾi.esˈtiŋ]), a form ofVenetian. This dialect and official Italian are spoken in the city, while Slovene is spoken in some of the immediate suburbs.[75] There are also small numbers of Serbo-Croatian, German, Greek, and Hungarian speakers.[citation needed]
Trieste seafrontPiazza Unità d'ItaliaPiazza Unità d'Italia by nightFrom left to right:Barcolana near the Victory Lighthouse; a part of the harbour; and a street of the Old City
In 2012,Lonely Planet listed Trieste as the world's most underrated travel destination.[79]
The Castello Miramare, or Miramare Castle, on the waterfront 8 kilometres (5 miles) from Trieste, was built between 1856 and 1860 in a project byCarl Junker, commissioned byArchduke Maximilian. The castle gardens comprise a variety of trees, chosen by and planted on the orders of Maximilian.[80] Features of the gardens include two ponds, one noted for its swans and the other for lotus flowers, the castle dependence ("Castelletto"), a bronze statue of Maximilian, and a small chapel where a cross made from the remains of the "Novara" is kept, the flagship on which Maximilian, brother of EmperorFranz Josef, set sail to becomeEmperor of Mexico.
During the 1930s, the castle was also the home ofPrince Amedeo, Duke of Aosta, the last commander of Italian forces in East Africa during the Second World War. During the period of the application of the Instrument for the Provisional Regime of the Free Territory of Trieste, as established in the Treaty of Peace with Italy (Paris 10/02/1947), the castle served as headquarters for the United States Army'sTRUST force.
The Castel San Giusto, or Castle of San Giusto, was built upon the remains of previous castles on the site and took almost two centuries to build. The stages of the development of the castle's defensive structures are marked by the following periods: the central part built, underFrederick III, Holy Roman Emperor (1470–1), the round Venetian bastion (1508–9), the Hoyos-Lalio bastion and the Pomis, or "Bastione fiorito" dated 1630.[citation needed]
TheSt Justus Cathedral (1320). Named after the city's Patron,Justus of Trieste, the church's interiors are decorated with Byzantine mosaics. It became a symbol of Italian Trieste during theRisorgimento.
The Waldensian and Helvetian Evangelical Basilica of St. Silvester (11th century)
The Church of Santa Maria Maggiore (1682)
The Augustan Evangelical-Lutheran Church (1874)
TheGreek Orthodox Church of San Nicolò dei Greci (1787). This church by the architectMatteo Pertsch (1818), with bell towers on both sides of the façade, follows the Austrian late baroque style. The interiors are decorated by golden ornaments.
The Arco di Riccardo (33 BC)[81] is a gate built in the Roman walls in 33 BC. It stands in Piazzetta Barbacan, in the narrow streets of the old town. Its current name is believed to be a corruption of Arco del Cardo, referring to thecardo, the main north-to-south Roman street; folk etymology credits it toRichard the Lionheart (Italian:Riccardo Cuor di Leone), a Crusader king of England.
Basilica Forense (2nd century)
Palaeochristian basilica (4th to 6th century)
Roman Age Temples: one dedicated to Athena, one to Zeus, both on the San Giusto hill.
The ruins of the temple dedicated to Zeus are next to the Forum, those of Athena's temple are under the basilica, visitors can see its basement.
The Roman theatre lies at the foot of the San Giusto hill, facing the sea. The construction partially exploits the gentle slope of the hill, and much of the theatre is made of stone. The topmost portion of the steps and the stage were supposedly made of wood. The statues which adorned the theatre, brought to light in the 1930s, are now preserved in the town museum. Three inscriptions from theTrajanic period mention a certain Q. Petronius Modestus, someone closely connected to the development of the theatre, which was erected during the second half of the 1st century.[82] This amphitheatre held tragedies, comedies, and gladiator fights. It was hidden for quite some time and was excavated in 1937–1938.[83][84]
In the entireProvince of Trieste, there are 10 speleological groups out of 24 in the whole Friuli-Venezia Giulia region. The Trieste plateau (Altopiano Triestino), called Kras or theCarso and covering an area of about 200 square kilometres (77 sq mi) within Italy has approximately 1,500 caves of various sizes (like that of Basovizza, now a monument to theFoibe massacres).[85]
Among the more famous are theGrotta Gigante, the largest tourist cave in the world, with a single cavity large enough to contain St Peter's in Rome, and theCave of Trebiciano, 350 metres (1,150 ft) deep, at the bottom of which flows theTimavo River. This river dives underground at theŠkocjan Caves in Slovenia (on the UNESCO list and only a few kilometres from Trieste) and flows about 30 kilometres (19 mi) before emerging about 1 kilometre (0.6 mi) from the sea in a series of springs near Duino, reputed by the Romans to be an entrance to Hades ("the world of the dead").[citation needed]
Piazza Unità d'Italia, Trieste's central majestic square surrounded by 19th century architecture, and the largest seafront square in Europe.[citation needed] Thecruise ship terminal Trieste Terminal Passeggeri (TTP) is next to the Piazza Unità d’Italia.[86]
Piazza Venezia
Piazza Venezia, with a view over the Adriatic. Since 2009, the monument toArchduke Maximilian has been located in Piazza Venezia again, looking over the Gulf of Trieste to the Miramare Castle, the subject wearing a Vice Admiral's uniform. The more than 8 metre high bronze monument, with the allegories of the four continents, is intended to honour Maximilian's philanthropy and his interest in science and art. It was sculpted by sculptor Johannes Schilling at the request of and under the direction of BaronPasquale Revoltella. It was inaugurated in 1875 in the presence of Emperor Franz Joseph, later removed after 1918 and relocated to the Miramare Castle Park in 1961.[87][88]Museo Revoltella is located in Piazza Venezia in the style of the Italian Renaissance with its six allegorical statues of the Venetian Francesco Bosa on the roof balustrade.
Caffè San Marco, a historical coffee house in the centre of the city. Cafès play an important role in the Triestine economy, as Trieste developed a thriving coffee industry under the influence ofAustria-Hungary nobility, and is still known to this day as "the coffee capital of Italy".[citation needed]
The Austrian Quarter: Half of the city was built during theAustro-Hungarian period, giving the city some aspects ofVienna's architectural characteristics. The majority of buildings were built inNeoclassical,Art Nouveau,Eclectic andLiberty styles.
Città Vecchia (Old City): Trieste has an extensive old city: there are many narrow and crooked streets with typical medieval houses. Almost all of the area is closed to traffic.
The Stazione Rogers (gas station "Aquila" designed byErnesto Nathan Rogers) is considered an important building of Italian rationalism and post-war modernism and is now a multi-purpose centre for culture and architecture.[89]
Molo Sartorio, where still today the sea level for the Republic of Austria, a landlocked nation, is measured as "metres above the Adriatic". The historic "Antico Magazzino Vini" next to the Piazza Venezia was built in 1902 to store wine from Dalmatia and Istria. It has now been revitalised and now houses anEataly. The former fish market, now renovated, is now a place for exhibitions and art, and is also located directly by the sea.
Canal Grande, Trieste's grand canal, in the very centre of the city.
Barcola, a suburb of Trieste with a special microclimate[14] and a high quality of life since ancient times. On its kilometre-long sea promenade towards Miramare Castle there are cafes and restaurants. Many locals spend their free time on this urban beach area, sunbathing, swimming and playing sports.The northernmost lighthouse in the Mediterranean, theVittoria Light, located above Barcola, dominates the skyline above.[90]
Rosandra Valley, part of a national park on the border between theProvince of Trieste and Slovenia. The 40-metre (130 ft) Supet Falls attract attention.
Much of Trieste lies directly on the sea. Some bathing establishments are located in the very centre, like the "El Pedocin - Bagno marino La Lanterna" and the "Ausonia". The "Bagno Marino Ferroviario" has been located in Viale Miramare 30 since 1925.[91] Many locals and students use their lunch break or free time to go toBarcola, which is anurban beach, to meet friends on the famous mile-long embankment.[citation needed] In the evening, many locals walk there between the bars with a view of the sea, theAlpine arc,Istria and the city.[citation needed]
Well-known are the 10 popular semi-circular units on the bank consisting of a viewing platform, sanitary facilities and changing rooms, which are popularly referred to as "Topolini".[92] In the area of the Excelsior bathing establishment, which is located on a historic sand bank, there were elegant Roman villas and their sports and bathing facilities in antiquity.[93] Already in the 19th century there were numerous restaurants and cafes with shady vine arbors. The sea around Miramare Castle is today a nature reserve.
The pine forest of Barcola is located directly on the sea and is a meeting place for the inhabitants in every season. One of the best running routes in Trieste leads from Barcola to Miramare Castle and back. The small bathing complex Bagno da Sticco is right next to Miramare Castle. Further towardsGrignano andDuino there are numerous bays and natural beaches. Due to the currents in the Adriatic, the water in the area of Trieste is very pure and not polluted by suspended matter from rivers. The current is counterclockwise.[94][95][96]
Libreria Antiquaria Umberto SabaChurch of San Nicolò dei GreciJames Joyce, Umberto Saba and their friends were guests of the still-existing Caffè Stella Polare.[97]
The literary-intellectual centre of Trieste is mostly located in the downtown area: "Libreria Antiquaria Umberto Saba" located at the ground floor of Via San Nicolò No. 30, whereJames Joyce lived (where his son Giorgio was born and where Joyce wrote some of the short stories from Dubliners and Stephen Hero); the house in Via San Nicolò No. 31, whereUmberto Saba spent his breaks at the cafe-milk shop "Walter" and the house in Via San Nicolò No. 32, in which the Berlitz School was located and where James Joyce came into contact with and subsequently taughtItalo Svevo, are all of literary relevance. Around this area, at the end of Via San Nicolò, a life-size statue of Umberto Saba has been placed by the city government. Having Via San Nicolò become Trieste's high street, numerous cafes and restaurants that used to be located there, most notably the Berger beer hall at No. 17, which later became the Berger Grand Restaurant, have now ceased operations. Via San Nicolò No. 30 is also the symbolic centre of the homonymous novel by Roberto Curci.[98][99] One of the most importantArt Nouveau buildings in Trieste, the "Casa Smolars", completed in 1905, stands in Via San Nicolò No. 36.[100] Eppinger Caffè has been located nearby since around 1946.[101] The former "Palazzo della RAS", located in Piazza della Repubblica, has been completely renovated and is now an hotel.[102]
Caffe Stella Polare is located in Piazza Ponterosso. This cosmopolitan coffee house was also frequented by Saba, Joyce, Guido Voghera, Virgilio Giotti and in particular by the former German-speaking minority from Trieste. With the end of World War II and the arrival of the Anglo-Americans in the city, this café became a hangout place of many soldiers and a famous ballroom to meet local young women.[103] Trieste hosts the annual ITS (International Talent Support Awards) young fashion designer competition.[104] The power metal bandRhapsody was founded in Trieste by the city's nativesLuca Turilli andAlex Staropoli.
Harry's Piccolo is the only Michelin-starred restaurant in Trieste. Next to Piazza Unita d’Italia the streets of the Cavana district are lined with design-led cafes anddelis.[105]
TheFoiba di Basovizza, a National monument. It is a reminder of the killings of Italians by Yugoslav partisans after World War II.
The Slovenska gospodarsko-kulturna zveza—Unione Economica-Culturale Slovena is the umbrella organisation bringing together cultural and economic associations belonging to theSlovene minority.
TheGreek Orthodox Church of San Nicolò dei Greci, which is dedicated toSaint Nicholas, the patron saint of seafarers and whose interior inspired James Joyce, is located by the sea in Piazza Tommaseo, next to the historic Caffè Tommaseo. This coffee house, also located at the beginning of Via San Nicolò, was opened in 1830. It is the oldest coffee house still in operation in Trieste and is still a meeting place for artists and intellectuals today.[106][107]
During theAustro-Hungarian era, Trieste became a leading European city in economy, trade and commerce, and was the fourth-largest and most important centre in the empire, after Vienna, Budapest and Prague. The economy of Trieste, however, fell into decline after the city's annexation to Italy in 1922. The Fascist government promoted several development schemes in the 1930s, with new manufacturing activities dedicated to shipbuilding and defence production (such as the "Cantieri Aeronautici Navali Triestini (CANT)").[108] Allied bombings duringWorld War II destroyed the industrial section of the city (mainly the shipyards). However, starting from the 1970s, Trieste has experienced steady economic growth.
Port of Trieste
Since the fall of the Iron Curtain, the accession of Slovenia, Croatia, Hungary, the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the EU and the increasing importance of the maritimeSilk Road to Asia and Africa across theSuez Canal, trade has seen an increase in Trieste.[109][110][111] ThePort of Trieste is a major trade hub in the northern Mediterranean, with significant commercial shipping activity and busy container and oil terminals. The port has been included in the Silk Road scheme because of its ability to dock container ships with very large drafts.[112][113][114][115][116] Because of this natural advantage, the Port of Hamburg (HHLA) and the State of Hungary have holdings in the port area of Trieste and the associated facilities have been expanded by the Italian state in 2021 with an investment of €400 million.[117] The port is now being promoted as a key terminal for theIndia-Middle East-Europe economic Corridor (IMEC)[118] and theIndo-Mediterranean.[119] It is considered strategic for Europe due to its position which can connect various trade routes as well as reinforce trade with the Ukrainian port of Odesa.
The oil terminal is a key infrastructure in theTransalpine Pipeline, which covers 40% of Germany's energy requirements (100% of the states of Bavaria and Baden-Württemberg), 90% of Austria and 50% of the Czech Republic's.[120][121] The sea highway connecting the ports of Trieste and Istanbul is one of the busiest RO/RO [roll on roll-off] routes in the Mediterranean. The port is also Italy's and the Mediterranean's greatest coffee port, supplying more than 40% of Italy's coffee.[122] The city is part of the Corridor 5 project to establish closer transport connections between Western and Eastern Europe, through countries such as Slovenia, Croatia, Hungary, Ukraine and Bosnia.[123]
One of many coffee sacks that are traded by a Trieste company
The thriving coffee industry in Trieste began underAustria-Hungary, with the Austro-Hungarian government even awarding tax-free status to the city in order to encourage more commerce. Some evidence of Austria-Hungary's coffee-driven economic growth stimulus remain, such as the Hausbrandt Trieste coffee company. As a result, present-day Trieste is characterised by its many cafes, and is still known to this day as "the coffee capital of Italy". Companies active in the coffee sector have given birth to the Trieste Coffee Cluster as their main umbrella organisation, but also as an economic actor in its own right.[124] A large part of Italian coffee imports (approx. 2–2.5 million sacks) are handled and processed in the city.[125]
TwoFortune Global 500 companies have their global or national headquarters in the city, respectively:Assicurazioni Generali andAllianz. Other corporations based in Trieste areFincantieri, one of the world's leading shipbuilding companies, and the Italian operations ofWärtsilä. Prominent companies from Trieste include: AcegasApsAmga (Hera Group), Adriatic Assicurazioni SpA Autamarocchi SpA,Banca Generali SpA (BIT: BGN),Genertel,Genertellife, HERA Trading, the coffee companyIlly, the shipping lineItalia Marittima,Modiano, Nuovo Arsenale Cartubi Srl,Jindal Steel and Power Italia SpA; Pacorini SpA, Siderurgica Triestina (Arvedi Group), TBS Groug,U-blox,Telit, and polling and marketing companySWG.
The real estate market in Trieste has been growing in recent years. The relevant land register law comes from old Austrian legislation and was adopted by the Italian legal system after 1918 in Trieste, as well as in the provinces of Trento, Bolzano and Gorizia as well as in some municipalities of the provinces of Udine, Brescia, Belluno and Vicenza.[126][127][128]
Professional fisherman's boat inBarcola, a suburb of Trieste
Fishing boats anchor at Molo Veneziano near Piazza Venezia. In summerlampare (large lamps) are used for fishing and in autumn and winterredi di posta (smaller fishing nets) are used. In theGulf of Trieste, because of the crystal-clear, nutrient-poor water with little plankton, fishing in itself is challenging. The fishing season lasts from May to July. In terms of fish reproduction, fishing is prohibited in August and restricted in winter. As of 2009, there are fewer than 200 professional fishermen in the city. There is also a small fishing port in the suburbBarcola. Some of the fish is sold directly from the boats or delivered to the town's shops and restaurants. The rare alici ([anchovies - in the local dialect:Sardoni barcolani) from the Gulf of Trieste near Barcola, which are only caught at Sirocco, are particularly sought after because of their white meat and special taste and fetch high prices for fishermen.[129][130]
TheUniversity of Trieste, founded in 1924, is a medium-size state-supported institution with 12 faculties. It currently has about 23,000 students enrolled and 1,000 professors.Trieste also hosts theScuola Internazionale Superiore di Studi Avanzati (SISSA), a leading graduate and postgraduate teaching and research institution in the study of mathematics, theoretical physics, and neuroscience, and theMIB School of Management Trieste.
There are three international schools offering primary and secondary education programmes in English in the greater metropolitan area: the International School of Trieste, the European School of Trieste, and theUnited World College of the Adriatic located in the nearby village ofDuino.
Research institutions such as the International Center for Theoretical Physics (logo), SISSA and the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics are located in Trieste around Barcola.
The city also hosts numerous national and international scientific research organizations:
Trieste is also a hub for corporate training and skills development, hosting, among others, Generali's Generali Academy and Illy's Università del Caffé. This competence centre was created in 1999 to spread the culture of quality coffee through training all over the world and to carry out research and innovation.[131]
As a result of the combination of research, business and funding, there are a growing number of spin-off companies in Trieste (partnerships in the production world exist with companies such as Cimolai, Danieli, Eni, Fincantieri, Generali, Illy, Mitsubishi, Vodafone) and proportionally the highest number of start-ups in Italy, the city also being referred to as Italy's Silicon Valley.[132][133][134] Neurala, a company specialising in artificial intelligence, has chosen Trieste as its European research centre.[135] Trieste has the highest proportion of researchers in Europe in relation to the population. They also appreciate the high quality of life and leisure time, so, as is often said, you can ski and swim by the sea in one day from Trieste.[5]
The localfootball club,Triestina, is one of the older clubs in Italy. Notably, it was runner-up in the1947–1948 season of the Italian first division (Serie A), losing the championship toTorino.
Trieste is notable for having had two football clubs participating in the championships of two different nations at the same time during the period of theFree Territory of Trieste, due to the schism within the city and region created by the post-war demarcation.Triestina played in the Italian first division (Serie A). Although it faced relegation after thefirst season after the Second World War, theFIGC modified the rules, as it was deemed important to keep the club in the league. The following year the club played its best season with a 3rd-place finish. Meanwhile, Yugoslavia boughtA.S.D. Ponziana, a small team in Trieste, which under the new name Amatori Ponziana Trst, played in theYugoslavian league for three years.[136] Triestina went bankrupt in the 1990s, but after being re-founded, it regained a position in the Italian second division (Serie B) in 2002. Ponziana was renamed "Circolo Sportivo Ponziana 1912" and currently plays in Friuli-Venezia Giulia Group ofPromozione, which is the 7th level of theItalian league.
Trieste also has a well-known basketball team,Pallacanestro Trieste, which reached its zenith in the 1990s under coachBogdan Tanjević when, with large financial backing from sponsorsStefanel, it was able to sign players such asDejan Bodiroga,Fernando Gentile andGregor Fučka, stars of European basketball. At the end of the 2017–18 season, the team, now trained by coach Eugenio Dalmasson and sponsored by Alma, won promotion to theLega Basket Serie A, Italy's highest basketball league, 14 years after its last tenure.
Many sailing clubs have roots in the city which contribute to Trieste's strong tradition in that sport. TheBarcolana regatta, first held in 1969, is the world's largest sailing race by number of participants.[137]
Local sporting facilities include theStadio Nereo Rocco, aUEFA-certified stadium with seating capacity of 32,500; thePalatrieste, an indoor sporting arena sitting 7,000 people, and Piscina Bruno Bianchi, a large Olympic size swimming pool.
On 26 August 1985 American basketball playerMichael Jordan dunked so hard that the backboard shattered during a Nike exhibition game played in Trieste. The signed jersey and shoes (including one of the tiny shards of glass in the sole of the left shoe) that the player wore during the famous shattered backboard game were later auctioned. The moment the glass broke was filmed and is often cited as a particularly important milestone in Jordan's rise.[138]
Trieste has been portrayed on screen a number of times, with films oftenshot on location. In 1942 the earlyneorealistAlfa Tau! was filmed partly in the city.
Cinematic interest in Trieste peaked during the height of the "Free Territory" era from 1947 to 1954, with international films such asSleeping Car to Trieste andDiplomatic Courier portraying it as a hotbed of espionage. These films, along withThe Yellow Rolls-Royce (1964), conveyed an image of the city as acosmopolitan place of conflict betweenGreat Powers, a portrayal which resemblesCasablanca (1943). Italian filmmakers, by contrast, portrayed Trieste as unquestionably Italian in a series of patriotic films, includingTrieste mia! andOmbre su Trieste.[139]
In 1963 the city hosted the first International Festival of Science Fiction Film (Festival internazionale del film di fantascienza), which ran until 1982. Under the name Science Plus Fiction (nowTrieste Science+Fiction Festival), the festival was revived in 2000.[140][141]
An interest in the city has been sparked by movies such asThe Invisible Boy (2014), its sequelThe Invisible Boy—Second Generation, and the TV seriesLa Porta Rossa.[142]
Long established authentic restaurants include Buffet da Pepi, Vecio Buffet Marascutti, Buffet Siora Rosa, and Antica Trattoria Suban.Buffet means that restaurant staff assemble a platter ofcold cuts andantipasto for the customer who chooses either a lunch meal or a snack.[143] Local cuisine has been influenced by the various ethnic groups which have populated the city, mainly Central Europeans. Traditional main courses includejota, minestra de bisi spacai (pea stew), rotolo di spinaci in straza (spinach rolls), sardoni impanai (breaded anchovies, a sought-after delicacy), capuzi garbi (krauts), capuzi garbi in tecia (sautéed krauts),vienna sausages,goulash,ćevapi and frito misto (fried fish). Popular desserts are presnitz, fave triestine, titola, crostoli, struccolo de pomi, kugelhupf, rigo jancsi and the Triester torte.[144][145][146]
Capo Triestino (also capo in B or capo in bicchiere) is considered a local coffee speciality. This miniature cappuccino in a glass cup is usually consumed at the bar.[147] The Prosecco wine is served in hundreds of variations. The eponymous village ofProsecco is located within the limits of the Trieste municipality.[148]
Trieste's maritime location and its former long-term status as part of theAustrian Empire—later theAustro-Hungarian Empire—made thePort of Trieste the major commercial port for much of the landlocked areas of central Europe. In the 19th century, a new port district known as the Porto Nuovo was built northeast of the city centre.[149]
Significant volumes of goods pass through the container, steel works and oil terminals, all located to the south of the city centre. After many years of stagnation, a change in the leadership placed the port on a steady growth path, recording a 40% increase in shipping traffic as of 2007[update].[149]
Today the port of Trieste is one of the largest Italian ports and next toGioia Tauro the only deep water port in the central Mediterranean for seventh generation container ships.[150]
Railways came early to Trieste, due to the importance of its port and the need to transport people and goods inland. The first railroad line to reach Trieste was theSüdbahn, built by theAustrian government in 1857. This railway stretches for 1,400 km (870 mi) toLviv, Ukraine, viaLjubljana, Slovenia;Sopron,Hungary; Vienna,Austria; andKraków,Poland, crossing the backbone of theAlps mountains through theSemmering Pass nearGraz. It approaches Trieste through the village ofVilla Opicina, a few kilometres from the centre but over 300 metres (984 feet) higher in elevation. Due to this, the line takes a 32 kilometres (20 miles) detour to the north, gradually descending before terminating at theTrieste Centrale railway station.
In 1887, theImperial Royal Austrian State Railways (German:kaiserlich-königliche österreichische Staatsbahnen) opened a new railway line, theTrieste–Hrpelje railway (German:Hrpelje-Bahn), from the new port of Trieste toHrpelje-Kozina, on theIstrian railway.[151] The intended function of the new line was to reduce the Austrian Empire's dependence on the Südbahn network.[152] Its opening gave Trieste a second station south of the original one, which was named Trieste Sant'Andrea (German:Triest Sankt Andrea). The two stations were connected by a railway line that in the initial plans was meant to be an interim solution: theRive railway (German:Rive-Bahn), which survived until 1981, when it was replaced by theGalleria di Circonvallazione, a 5.7-kilometre (3.5 mi) railway tunnel route to the east of the city.
With the opening of theTransalpina Railway from Vienna, Austria viaJesenice andNova Gorica in 1906, the St. Andrea station was replaced by a new, more capacious, facility, named Trieste stazione dello Stato (German:Triest Staatsbahnhof), laterTrieste Campo Marzio, now a railway museum, and the original station came to be identified as Trieste stazione della Meridionale or Trieste Meridionale (German:Triest Südbahnhof). This railway also approached Trieste via Villa Opicina, but it took a rather shorter loop southwards towards the sea front. Freight lines from the dock area include container services to northern Italy and to Budapest, Hungary, together withrolling highway services to Salzburg, Austria and Frankfurt, Germany.[citation needed]
There are direct intercity and high-speed trains between Trieste and Venice, Verona, Turin, Milan, Rome, Florence, Naples and Bologna. Passenger trains also run between Villa Opicina and Ljubljana.[citation needed]
On special occasion, the historic ETR 252 "Arlecchino" runs the Venezia Santa Lucia-Trieste Centrale route, operated by Fondazionefs. This is one of four examples ever built.[153]
Trieste is served by theTrieste Airport (IATA: TRS). The airport serves domestic and international destinations and is fully connected to the national railway and highway networks. TheTrieste Airport railway station links the passenger terminal directly to theVenice–Trieste railway thanks to a 425-metre long skybridge. A 16 platform bus terminal, a multi-storey car park with 500 lots and a car park with 1,000 lots give public and private motor vehicles rapid access to theA4 Trieste-Turin highway. At the interchange near Palmanova, the A4 branches off toAutostrada A23 linking to Austria'sSüd Autobahn (A2) via Udine and Tarvisio. In the southern direction, this highway also offers seamless interconnection to Slovenia'sA1 Motorway, and through that to highway networks in Croatia, Hungary, and the Balkans.
A car of the Opicina TramwayScooters are used as personal transport in Trieste.
Local public transport is operated by Trieste Trasporti, a part of TPL FVG, which operates a network of around 60 bus routes and two ferry lines. Its also operates theOpicina Tramway, a hybrid between a tramway andfunicular railway, providing a more direct link between the city centre and Opicina.[154]
Trieste hosts the Secretariat of theCentral European Initiative, an inter-governmental organisation among Central and South-Eastern European states.
In recent years, Trieste has been chosen as host to a number of high level bilateral and multilateral meetings such as: theWestern Balkans Summit in 2017; the Italo-Russian Bilateral Summit in 2013 (Letta-Putin) and the Italo-German Bilateral Summit in 2008 (Berlusconi-Merkel); theG7 meeting of education ministers in 2024; theG8 meetings of Foreign Affairs and Environment Ministers, respectively in 2009 and 2001. In December 2020, Trieste hosted three-party talks between the foreign ministers of Italy, Croatia, and Slovenia on the delimitation of their respectiveexclusive economic zone. In 2020, Trieste was nominated the European Science Capital byEuroScience. In August 2021, it hosted theG20 Meeting of Ministers of Innovation and Research.
^Bernardini, F., Vinci, G., Horvat, J., De Min, A., Forte, E., Furlani, S., Lenaz, D., Pipan, M., Zhao, W., Sgambati, A., Potleca, M., Micheli, R., Fragiacomo, A., & Tuniz, C. (2015). Early Roman military fortifications and the origin of Trieste, Italy.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America,112(13), E1520–E1529.JSTOR26462435
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^abStranj, Pavel,Slovensko prebivalstvo Furlanije-Julijske krajine v družbeni in zgodovinski perspektivi, Trst, 1999
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^Pizzi, Katia.A City in Search of an Author. Bloomsbury Publishing, 2001. p.61-62
^Oberegger, Elmar."Hrpelje-Bahn" [Hrpelje Railway] (in German). Part of this series: Zur Eisenbahngeschichte des Alpen-Donau-Adria-Raumes. Oberegger, Elmar. Archived fromthe original on 23 July 2011. Retrieved7 March 2011.
^"Rapido Arlecchino".www.fondazionefs.it (in Italian). Retrieved20 October 2022.
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