| Kieltraktaten (Danish) Freden i Kiel (Swedish) | |
|---|---|
 Translated reprint of the part of the treaty concerned with Norway | |
| Type | Peace treaty |
| Context | War of the Sixth Coalition during theNapoleonic Wars |
| Signed | 14 January 1814 |
| Location | Kiel,Duchy of Holstein |
| Parties | |
| Language | French |
TheTreaty of Kiel (Danish:Kieltraktaten) orPeace of Kiel (Swedish andNorwegian:Kielfreden orfreden i Kiel) was concluded between theUnited Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and theKingdom of Sweden on one side and theKingdoms of Denmark and Norway on the other side on 14 January 1814 inKiel.[1] It ended the hostilities between the parties in the ongoingNapoleonic Wars, where the United Kingdom and Sweden were part of the anti-French camp (theSixth Coalition) while Denmark–Norway was allied to theFrench Empire.[1]
Frederick VI of Denmark joined the anti-French alliance, cededHeligoland toGeorge III of the United Kingdom, and further ceded theKingdom of Norway toCharles XIII of Sweden in return forSwedish Pomerania.[1] Specifically excluded from the exchange were the Norwegian dependencies ofGreenland,Iceland and theFaroe Islands, which remained in the union with Denmark.[2] (Norway would unsuccessfully contest the Danish claim to all of Greenland in theEastern Greenland Case of 1931–1933.[3])
However, not all provisions of the treaty would come into force. Norway declared itsindependence, adopted aconstitution and elected Crown PrinceChristian Frederik as its own king. Sweden therefore refused to hand over Swedish Pomerania, which instead passed toPrussia after theCongress of Vienna in 1815. After a shortwar with Sweden, Norway accepted entering into apersonal union with Sweden at theConvention of Moss. King Christian abdicated after convening an extraordinaryStorting, which revised the Constitution to allow for the Union. It was formally established when the Storting elected Charles XIII as king of Norway on 4 November 1814.
In the beginning of theNapoleonic Wars,Denmark–Norway and theKingdom of Sweden tried to maintain neutrality[4] but soon became involved in the fighting, joining opposite camps. Swedish kingGustav IV Adolf entered an alliance with theUnited Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and theRussian Empire againstNapoleon Bonaparte in 1805, and declared war onNapoleonic France.[4] The United Kingdom, which had declared war on France in 1803,paid subsidies to Sweden.[4] Before Gustav IV Adolf marched his forces out ofSwedish Pomerania,a province long coveted by Prussia, he negotiated an agreement that Prussia would not attack it.[4] Denmark remained neutral.[4]
In 1807, Napoleonic forcesseized Swedish Pomerania and forced Prussia and Russia to sign theTreaty of Tilsit.[5] Russia was therein obliged to attack Napoleon's enemies, and since Gustav IV Adolf refused to break his alliance with the United Kingdom, the Tsar invadedFinland andsevered it from Sweden in theFinnish War, 1808/1809.[5]Sweden could no longer uphold her anti-French foreign policy, and French MarshalJean Baptiste Bernadotte was elected heir to the Swedish throne in 1810.[5] Denmark–Norway entered an alliance with France after theBritish bombardment of Copenhagen in 1807.[6]
In 1812, Napoleon's forces were decimated in their failed attempt to subdue Russia, and started their westward retreat.[7] Sweden allied with Russia on 30 August 1812, with the United Kingdom on 3 March 1813,[8] and with Prussia on 22 April 1813.[9] Previously, on 23 March 1813, she had declared war on Napoleon.[9] Bernadotte's condition for entering the anti-Napoleonic alliance was the gain of Norway, which the United Kingdom and Russia accepted in May 1813.[9] Prussia however did not acknowledge this claim at first.[9] Thus, Bernadotte hesitated to enter the war with full force,[9] and only engaged in a campaign againstHamburg which on 30 June was re-conquered by allied French and Danish forces.[10] When Prussia finally accepted the Swedish claim to Norway on 22 July, Sweden joined thealliance of Reichenbach concluded between Russia, the United Kingdom and Prussia on 14/15 June.[10] With three armies (North, Main andSilesian, the Northern army under Bernadotte's command), the allies subsequently clearedNorthern Germany of French forces. Denmark, who had maintained the alliance with Napoleon because of the Swedish claim to Norway,[9] was isolated and, as a consequence of the war, bankrupt.[11] Bernadotte, now free to attack Denmark after Napoleon'sdefeat at Leipzig in Mid-October, took his combined Swedish/Russian Army and quickly defeated the outnumberedRoyal Danish Army and occupiedHolstein andSchleswig during late December 1813. Frederick VI agreed to make peace once it was clear that Bernadotte would occupyJutland andZealand (with British naval assistance), if necessary to force the Norwegian cession.[12]
The treaty between theKingdom of Denmark and theUnited Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was negotiated by Danish diplomatEdmund Bourke and the British envoy at the Swedish court,Edward Thornton.[13] It consisted of 14 articles, to which two articles were added inBrussels on 7 April.[13]
In article III, the United Kingdom was obliged to return all occupied Danish possessions to the Danish king.[13] Excepted was the island ofHeligoland, where the British king was granted "full and unlimited sovereignty".[13]
In article VI, the Danish king joined the anti-Napoleonic alliance, and obliged himself to maintain an army of 10,000 men that was to be joined to the Allied forces in Northern Germany and likewise be commanded by the Swedish crown prince.[14] This Danish contingent was to be treated the same way the Swedish contingent was treated, and the Danish king was to receive an annual 400,000 pounds of British subsidies for maintenance and pay of the army, to be paid in monthly installments as soon as the army entered Allied service.[14]
Article VIII was concerned with the abolishment ofslave trade.[14] In article X, the British king promised the Danish king to negotiate further compensation for Denmark's territorial cessions to Sweden in a pending final peace.[14] In article XIII, older Dano-British treaties were confirmed.[14]
The articles added in Brussels were concerned with the property of Danish subjects in the colonies or in ceded territories, which was to remain untouched by the British for the next three years, and equal treatment of Danish, British andHanoveranian subjects, who were not to be prosecuted because of their participation in the war on different sides, nor because of their political or religious beliefs.[14]
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The treaty between theKingdom of Denmark and theKingdom of Sweden was negotiated by Danish diplomatEdmund Bourke (Burke) and Swedish envoy BaronGustaf af Wetterstedt with British mediation.[15] It consisted of 28 articles and one separate article.[15] In article III, the Danish king promised to join the alliance againstNapoleonic France,[16] and with reference to the Dano-British treaty confirms his obligation to put part of his army under Swedish command.[17]
In article IV, the Danish king in his and his successors' name "irrevocably and forever" renounced claims to theKingdom of Norway,[17] which would enter a union with Sweden under the Swedish king.[18] The Norwegian kingdom was defined as consisting of the bishoprics ofChristiansand,Bergen,Akershus andTrondheim, as well as the coastal islands and the northern regions ofNordland andFinnmark to the Russian border.[17] Excepted wereGreenland,Iceland and theFaroe Islands.[17] The Norwegian subjects were freed of their obligations to the Danish king.[17] In article VI, the Swedish crown took over the debts and financial obligations of Norway, which was to be determined by a joint Dano-Swedish commission.[17]
Article VII ruled thatSwedish Pomerania was to be handed over to Denmark.[17] In article XV, it was ruled that the Swedish forces were to take over the Norwegian fortresses as soon as the treaty was ratified, and that they were to abandon Swedish Pomerania as soon as the Norwegian fortressesFredriksten,Fredrikstad,Kongsvinger andAkershus were handed over.[19] In article XIII,[17] the Swedish king promised the Danish king to negotiate full compensation for the cession of Norway in a pending final peace, and the cession of Swedish Pomerania is described as a "proof" of this intention.[19]
In article XII, the king of Sweden promised to maintain the NorwegianUniversity of Christiania, and the PomeranianUniversity of Greifswald, which was to pass to Denmark according to article VII, and confirmed donations made before the exchange.[17] Also, it was agreed in article XX that subjects of the Danish king could choose within the next six years whether they would finally settle in Norway or Denmark, whereby property in the realm which would not become the permanent residence was to be sold only to inhabitants of this realm.[19] This provision was also enacted with respect to Swedish Pomerania.[19] In article XVI, it was agreed that the governors general and all foreign-born officials of the exchanged territories, as long as they did not decide to remain, were removed from their offices.[19] Article XXI obliged the Danish administration to hand over all civilian and military administrative documents and archives concerning Norway.[13]
Article XVII provided for a mutual exchange of all prisoners of war.[19] According to article XV, allied troops were to leave the DanishDuchy of Schleswig (Slesvig), but were allowed to remain in theGerman confederalDuchy of Holstein (Holsten), ruled inpersonal union with Denmark and Schleswig, to participate in thesiege of Hamburg.[19] In article XXVII, former Dano-Swedish peaces were confirmed as long as their provisions were not in conflict with the treaty of Kiel, namely theTreaty of Copenhagen (1660), theTreaty of Stockholm (June 1720), theTreaty of Frederiksborg (July 1720) and theTreaty of Jönköping (1809).[13] A separate article was concerned with the cession of hostilities.[13]
The Swedish crown prince intended to invade Norway to enforce the Treaty of Kiel. This was supported by the majority of people living in Sweden. However, the Norwegian elite inChristiania supported resistance. The bishopJohan Nordahl Brun wrote toClaus Pavels and urged his religious colleagues in Christiania to grab their rifles so as to never surrender. There was a brief war but aceasefire allowed for the union between Norway and Sweden to be established. The Norwegian Parliament voted for a constitution and elected the Swedish king to the Norwegian throne.[20] So Danish sovereignty over Norway was superseded with Swedish sovereignty over Norway. As of 1814 a distinction was made betweengenuine Norwegians and those allegedlyun-Norwegian. The Norwegian elite used this identity labeling to resistSwedification.[21]
Due to the refusal of Norway to subordinate itself to the Swedish king,Charles XIII of Sweden did not hand overSwedish Pomerania toFrederick VI of Denmark.[22] The problem was solved at theCongress of Vienna, when the Great Powers followed a plan worked out byKarl August von Hardenberg,prime minister of theKingdom of Prussia, who proposed a ring exchange of territories and payments between theKingdom of Denmark, theKingdom of Hanover (ruled in personal union withGreat Britain and Ireland), theKingdom of Prussia and theKingdom of Sweden.[22]
According to Hardenberg's plan, Prussia cededEast Frisia withEmden to Hanover, and in exchange received from Hanover theDuchy of Lauenburg.[22] This duchy was then handed over from Prussia to Denmark, along with an additional payment of 3.5 millionthalers.[22] Prussia also took over a Danish debt to Sweden of 600,000 thalers, and agreed on an additional payment of 2 million thalers to Sweden.[22] Denmark and Sweden in turn relinquished their claims to Swedish Pomerania in favour of Prussia.[22] Charles XIII of Sweden then released his Pomeranian subjects from their obligations towards Sweden on 1 October 1815, and on 23 October the province was handed over to von Ingersleben, president ofPrussian Pomerania.[22]
Between 1931 and 1933, Norway contested the Danish possession of all of Greenland at thePermanent Court of International Justice inThe Hague.[3] As of December 2008[update], this was the only case where possession of a polar territory was ever decided by an international court.[3]
The Norwegian side argued that Denmark did not hold rights to any part of the island where she did not exact actual sovereignty, and accordingly proclaimed a NorwegianEirik Raudes Land in eastern Greenland on 10 July 1931, which had been occupied in the previous month.[23] On 5 April 1933 however, the court ruled that on the basis of the Treaty of Kiel and subsequent treaties, Denmark was the sovereign over the whole of Greenland.[23][24]
Bibliography
