Kingdom of Travancore Thiruvithaamkoor Rajyam | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1729–1949 | |||||||||
 Flag  Coat of arms | |||||||||
| Motto: ധർമോസ്മത്ത് കുലദൈവതം Dharmōsmat Kuladaivatam (English: "Charity is our household divinity") | |||||||||
| Anthem: വഞ്ചീശ മംഗളം Vancheesha Mangalam (1937–1949) (English:"Hail the Lord of Vanchi") | |||||||||
 Location of the kingdom of Travancore (red) in 1940's British India (green) | |||||||||
| Common languages | Malayalam (official) Tamil (minority) | ||||||||
| Religion | Majority:Hinduism (official) Minority: ChieflyChristianity andIslam Small communities ofJews,Jains,Sikhs,Buddhists, andZoroastrians | ||||||||
| Government | Monarchy | ||||||||
| Maharaja | |||||||||
• 1729–1758 (first) | Marthanda Varma | ||||||||
• 1829–1846 (peak) | Swathi Thirunal | ||||||||
• 1931–1949 (last) | Chithira Thirunal | ||||||||
| Diwan | |||||||||
• 1729–1736 | Arumukan Pillai | ||||||||
• 1838–1839 (peak) | R. Venkata Rao | ||||||||
• 1947–1949 (last) | P. G. N. Unnithan | ||||||||
| Historical era | Age of Imperialism | ||||||||
• Established | 1729 | ||||||||
• Subsidiary alliance with theEast India Company | 1795 | ||||||||
• Vassal ofIndia | 1947 | ||||||||
• Merger withkingdom of Cochin | 1 July 1949 | ||||||||
• Disestablished | 1949 | ||||||||
| Area | |||||||||
| 1941[1] | 19,844 km2 (7,662 sq mi) | ||||||||
| Population | |||||||||
• 1941[1] | 6,070,018 | ||||||||
| Currency | Travancore Rupee | ||||||||
| |||||||||
| Today part of | India | ||||||||
TheKingdom of Travancore (/ˈtrævəŋkɔːr/), also known as theThiruvithamkoor Kingdom (Malayalam:[t̪iɾuʋid̪aːŋɡuːr]) andTravancore State, was a kingdom that lasted fromc. 1729 until 1949. It was ruled by theTravancore royal family fromPadmanabhapuram, and laterThiruvananthapuram. At its zenith, the kingdom covered most of the south of modern-dayKerala (Idukki,Kottayam,Alappuzha,Pathanamthitta,Kollam, andThiruvananthapuram districts, major portions ofErnakulam district,Puthenchira village ofThrissur district) and the southernmost part of modern-dayTamil Nadu (Kanyakumari district and some parts ofTenkasi district) with theThachudaya Kaimal's enclave ofIrinjalakudaKoodalmanikyam temple in the neighbouringkingdom of Cochin.[2] However, theTangasseri area ofKollam City andAnchuthengu nearAttingal in Thiruvananthapuram were parts ofBritish India.
Geographically,Malabar District ofMadras Presidency was to the north,[3] theMadurai andTirunelveli districts ofPandya Nadu region in Madras Presidency to the east, theIndian Ocean to the south, and theArabian Sea to the west.[4]
Travancore was divided into five divisions:Padmanabhapuram,Thiruvananthapuram,Quilon,Kottayam, andDevikulam. Padmanabhapuram and Devikulam divisions were predominantlyTamil-speaking regions with smallMalayalam-speaking minorities.[5]Thiruvananthapuram, Kollam, and Kottayam divisions were predominantly Malayalam-speaking regions with small Tamil-speaking minorities.[5]
KingMarthanda Varma inherited the small feudal state ofVenad in 1723, and built it into Travancore. Marthanda Varma led the Travancorean forces during theTravancore–Dutch War of 1739–46, which culminated in theBattle of Colachel. The defeat of the Dutch by Travancore is considered the earliest example of an organised power from Asia overcoming European military technology and tactics.[6] Marthanda Varma went on to conquer most of the smaller principalities of the native rulers.
The Travancore royal family signed a treaty with the British in 1788, thereby accepting British dominance. Later, in 1805, they revised the treaty, leading to a diminution of royal authority and the loss of political independence for Travancore.[7][8] They had to give up their ruling rights over the common people in 1949 when Travancore was forced to merge with independent India.
The kingdom takes its name fromThiruvithamcode in the present-dayKanyakumari district ofTamil Nadu.
The region had many small independent kingdoms. Later, at the peak of theChera–Chola–Pandya rule, this region became part of the Chera Kingdom (except for the Ay kingdom, which always remained independent). When the region was part of theChera empire, it was still known asThiruvazhumkode. It was contracted toThiruvankode, and anglicised by the English toTravancore.[9][10][11]
In the course of time, theAy clan, part of the Chera empire, which ruled the Thiruvazhumkode area, became an independent kingdom, and the land was calledAayi Desam orAayi Rajyam, meaning 'Aayi territory'. The Aayis controlled the land from the present-day Kollam district in the north, throughThiruvananthapuram district toKanyakumari district in the south. There were two capitals, the major one at Kollam (Venad Swaroopam orDesinganadu) and a subsidiary one at Thrippapur (Thrippapur Swaroopam orNanjinad). The kingdom was thus also calledVenad. Kings of Venad had built residential palaces in Thiruvithamcode andKalkulam. Thiruvithamcode became the capital of the Thrippapur Swaroopam, and the country was referred to asThiruvithamcode by Europeans even after the capital had been moved in 1601 toPadmanabhapuram, near Kalkulam.[12]
The Chera empire had dissolved by around 1100 and thereafter the territory comprised numerous small kingdoms until the time ofMarthanda Varma who, as king of Venad from 1729, employed brutal methods to unify them.[13] During his reign, Thiruvithamkoor (anglicised as Travancore) became the official name.[citation needed]
![Sree Padmanabha Swamy was the national deity of the kingdom of Travancore.[14]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aSree_Padmanabha_Swamy_Temple.jpg)
The kingdom of Travancore was located at the extreme southern tip of theIndian subcontinent. Geographically, Travancore was divided into three climatically distinct regions: the eastern highlands (rugged and cool mountainous terrain), the central midlands (rolling hills), and the western lowlands (coastal plains).[citation needed]
Due to the geographical isolation of theMalabar Coast from the rest of the Indian peninsula, attributed to the presence of theWestern Ghats mountain ranges lying parallel to the coast, the population and language spoken in Kerala differed from those in neighboring states such asTamil Nadu andKarnataka.
According to the religious text "Keralolpathi" by theNambudhiri Brahmins, the region fromGokarna toKanyakumari district was created whenParashurama threw his axe and claimed this land, known asParashuramakshetra.[15][16][17]
TheChera dynasty governed theMalabar Coast betweenAlappuzha in the south andKasaragod[citation needed] in the north. The region around Coimbatore was ruled by the Cheras during theSangam period roughly between the first and the fourth centuries CE and served as the eastern entrance to the Palakkad Gap, the principal trade route between the Malabar Coast and Tamil Nadu.[18] However the southern region of the present-day Kerala state was under theAy dynasty. During the Ay dynasty, they spoke a language known asMiddle Tamil.[19] When the Ay dynasty was conquered and succeeded by theKulashekara Perumals,[20] based inKollam (later known asVenad),[21] during the period of the Chera Kulashekara Perumal (Keralaputras) dynasty,[21] the language evolved intoOld Malayalam.[22] TheQuilon copper plates (849/850 CE) are considered the oldest available inscription written in Old Malayalam.[23][24] Later, the northern districts of Thiruvananthapuram, Kollam, Alapuzha, and Pathanamthitta became properMalayalam-speaking populations inKerala, while the other districts showed influences fromArabic,Tamil andKannada languages. During the period ofPattom Thanu Pillai, Travancore was referred to as Malayalam state or the land of properMalayalis.[25][26][27]
Located at the tip of the Indian subcontinent, the former state of Venad was traditionally ruled byrajas known as the Venattadis. Until the end of the 11th century AD, it was a small principality in the Ay Kingdom. The Ays were the earliest ruling dynasty in southern Kerala, who, at their zenith, ruled over a region fromNagercoil in the south to Thiruvananthapuram in the north. Their capital during the firstSangam age was in Aykudi and later, towards the end of the eighth century AD, atQuilon (Kollam). Though a series of attacks by the resurgent Pandyas between the seventh and eighth centuries caused the decline of the Ays, the dynasty was powerful until the beginning of the tenth century.[28]Sulaiman al-Tajir, aPersian merchant who visited Kerala during the reign ofSthanu Ravi Varma (9th century CE), recorded the existence of extensive trade between Kerala and China, based at the port of Kollam.[29]
When the Ay diminished, Venad became the southernmost principality of theSecond Chera Kingdom.[30] An invasion of the Cholas into Venad caused the destruction of Kollam in 1096. However, the Chera capital,Mahodayapuram, also fell in the subsequent Chola attack, which compelled the Chera king, Rama Varma Kulasekara, to shift his capital to Kollam.[31] Thus, Rama Varma Kulasekara, the last emperor of the Chera dynasty, was probably the founder of the Venad royal house, and the title of the Chera kings,Kulasekara, was thenceforth kept by the rulers of Venad. Thus the end of the Second Chera dynasty in the 12th century marks the independence of Venad.[32]
In the second half of the 12th century, two branches of the Ay dynasty, the Thrippappur and Chirava, merged in the Venad family, which set up the tradition of designating the ruler of Venad asChirava Moopan and the heir-apparent asThrippappur Moopan. While the Chrirava Moopan had his residence at Kollam, the Thrippappur Moopan resided at his palace in Thrippappur, nine miles north of Thiruvananthapuram, and was vested with authority over the temples of Venad kingdom, especially theSri Padmanabhaswamy temple.[30]
In the early 18th century CE, theTravancore royal family adopted some members from the royal family ofKolathunadu based atKannur, andParappanad in present-dayMalappuram district.[33] The history of Travancore began with Marthanda Varma, who inherited the kingdom of Venad (Thrippappur), and expanded it into Travancore during his reign (1729–1758). After defeating a union of feudal lords and establishing internal peace, he expanded the kingdom of Venad through a series of military campaigns fromKanyakumari in the south to the borders ofKochi in the north during his 29-year rule.[34]
During his rule occurred theTravancore–Dutch War (1739–1753) between Travancore and theDutch East India Company, which had been allied to some of these kingdoms.[citation needed] In 1741, Travancore won theBattle of Colachel against the Dutch, resulting in the complete eclipse of Dutch power in the region. In this battle Travancore forces captured the Dutch Captain,Eustachius De Lannoy; he later defected to Travancore.[35] De Lannoy was appointed captain of His Highness' bodyguard[35] and later Senior Admiral ("Valiya kappittan")[36] and modernised theTravancore army by introducing firearms and artillery.[35] From 1741 to 1758, De Lannoy remained in command of the Travancore forces and was involved in annexation of small principalities.[37]
Travancore became the most dominant state in the Kerala region by defeating the powerfulZamorin ofKozhikode in the battle ofPurakkad in 1755.[36]Ramayyan Dalawa, the prime minister (1737–1756) of Marthanda Varma, also played an important role in this consolidation and expansion.
On 3 January 1750, (5Makaram, 925Kollavarsham), Marthanda Varma virtually "dedicated" Travancore to his tutelary deityPadmanabha, one of the aspects of the Hindu GodVishnu with a lotus issuing from his navel on whichBrahma sits. From then on the rulers of Travancore ruled as the "servants of Padmanabha" (the Padmnabha-dasar).[38]
At the Battle of Ambalapuzha, Marthanda Varma defeated the union of the deposed kings[who?] and the king of theCochin kingdom.[citation needed]
Marthanda Varma's successor Karthika Thirunal Rama Varma (1758–1798), who was popularly known asDharma Raja, shifted the capital in 1795 fromPadmanabhapuram toThiruvananthapuram. Dharma Raja's period is considered a golden age in the history of Travancore. He not only retained the territorial gains of his predecessor, but also improved and encouraged social development. He was greatly assisted by a very efficient administrator,Raja Kesavadas, the Diwan of Travancore.[citation needed]
Travancore often allied with theEnglish East India Company in military conflicts.[39] During Dharma Raja's reign,Tipu Sultan, the de facto ruler ofMysore and the son ofHyder Ali, attacked Travancore in 1789 as a part of theMysore invasion of Kerala. Dharma Raja had earlier refused to hand over the Hindu political refugees from theMysore occupation of Malabar who had been given asylum in Travancore. The Mysore army entered the Cochin kingdom from Coimbatore in November 1789 and reachedThrissur in December. On 28 December 1789 Tipu Sultan attacked the Nedunkotta (northern lines) from the north, causing theBattle of Nedumkotta and the defeat of the Mysore army.
On Dharma Raja's death in 1798,Balarama Varma (1798–1810), the weakest ruler of the dynasty, took over at the age of sixteen. A treaty brought Travancore under asubsidiary alliance with the EnglishEast India Company in 1795.[39]
The prime ministers (dalawas ordewans) started to take control of the kingdom beginning withVelu Thampi Dalawa (Velayudhan Chempakaraman Thampi) (1799–1809), who was appointed as thedewan following the dismissal ofJayanthan Sankaran Nampoothiri (1798–1799). Initially,Velayudhan Chempakaraman Thampi and the East India Company got along very well. When a section of the Travancore army mutinied in 1805 against Velu Thampi, he sought refuge with the British Resident Colonel (later General)Colin Macaulay and later used company troops to crush the mutiny. Velu Thampi also played a key role in negotiating a new treaty between Travancore and the East India Company. However, the company's demands for compensating payment for their involvement in the Travancore–Mysore War (1791) on behalf of Travancore led to tension between the dewan and Colonel Macaulay. Velu Thampi and the dewan of Cochin kingdom,Paliath Achan Govindan Menon, who was unhappy with Macaulay for granting asylum to his enemy Kunhi Krishna Menon, declared "war" on the East India Company.[citation needed]
The East India Company army defeated Paliath Achan's army in Cochin on 27 February 1809.Paliath Achan surrendered to the East India Company and was exiled toMadras and later toBenaras. The company defeated forces under Velu Thampi at battles near Nagercoil and Kollam, and inflicted heavy casualties on the rebels, many of whom then deserted and returned home. The Maharajah of Travancore, who hitherto had not openly taken any part in the rebellion, now allied with the British and appointed one of Thampi's enemies as his prime minister. The allied East India Company army and the Travancore soldiers camped in Pappanamcode, just outside Thiruvananthapuram. Velu Thampi now organised a guerrilla struggle against the company, but committed suicide to avoid capture by the Travancore army. After the mutiny of 1805 against Velu Thampi, most of the Nair army battalions of Travancore were disbanded, and after Velu Thampi's uprising, almost all of the remaining Travancore forces were also disbanded, with the East India Company undertaking to serve the Rajah in cases of external and internal aggression.[citation needed]
The Rajahs of Travancore had been conditionally promoted toKshatriya-hood with periodic performance of16 mahādānams (great gifts in charity) such asHiranya-garbha, Hiranya-Kāmadhenu, and Hiranyāsvaratā, in each of which thousands ofBrahmins had been given costly gifts in addition to a minimum of 1kazhanch (78.65 gm) of gold.[40] In 1848 theMarquess of Dalhousie, thenGovernor-General of India, was apprised that the depressed condition of the finances in Travancore was due to these mahādānams by the rulers.[41] Lord Dalhousie instructedLord Harris, Governor of theMadras Presidency, to warn the King of Travancore,Martanda Varma (Uttram Tirunal) (1847–60), that if he did not end this practice, the Madras Presidency would take over his state's administration. This led to the cessation of the practice of mahādanams.[citation needed]
All Travancorean kings includingSree Moolam Thirunal conducted theHiranyagarbham andTulapurushadaanam ceremonies. MaharajaChithira Thirunal was the only King of Travancore not to have conducted these rituals as he considered them extremely costly.[42]
Thecaste system was enforced more rigorously in Travancore than in many other parts of India up to the mid-1800s. The hierarchical caste order was deeply entrenched in the social system and was supported by the government, which transformed this caste-based social system into a religious institution.[43]
In such a context, theAyyavazhi religious sect served also as a reform movement in uplifting the downtrodden of society, both socially and religiously. Therituals of Ayyavazhi constituted a social discourse. Its beliefs, mode of worship, and religious organisation seem to have enabled the Ayyavazhi group to negotiate, cope with, and resist the imposition of authority.[44] The hard tone of the sect's founder,Ayya Vaikundar, was perceived as a revolution against the government.[45] In response, KingSwathi Thirunal Rama Varma initially imprisoned Vaikundar in the Singarathoppu jail, but later set him at liberty. Vaikundar's jailor, Appaguru, ended up becoming his disciple.[46]
After the death ofSree Moolam Thirunal in 1924,Sethu Lakshmi Bayi became regent (1924–1931), as the heir apparent; SreeChithira Thirunal was then a minor, 12 years old.[47]
In 1935, Travancore joined theIndian State Forces Scheme and a Travancore unit was named1st Travancore Nair Infantry,Travancore State Forces. The unit was reorganised as anIndian State Infantry Battalion by Lieutenant Colonel H S Steward, who was appointed commandant of the Travancore State Forces.[48]
The last ruling king of Travancore,Chithira Thirunal Balarama Varma, reigned from 1931 to 1949. Menon states that "his reign marked revolutionary progress in the fields of education, defence, economy and society as a whole."[49] He made the famous Temple Entry Proclamation on 12 November 1936, which opened all theKshetrams (Hindu temples in Kerala) in Travancore to backward communities. This act won him praise from across India, most notably fromMahatma Gandhi. The first public transport system (Thiruvananthapuram–Mavelikkara) and telecommunication system (Thiruvananthapuram Palace–Mavelikkara Palace) were launched during his reign. He also began state industrialisation, introducing heavy industry in the state and established giant public sector undertakings. As many as twenty industries were established, mostly for utilising the local raw materials such as rubber, ceramics, and minerals. Even today, a majority of the premier industries in Kerala were initially established by Sree Chithira Thirunal. He patronised musicians, artists, dancers, and Vedic scholars. Sree Chithira Thirunal appointed, for the first time, an Art Advisor to the Government, Dr. G. H. Cousins. He also established a new form of University Training Corps, viz. Labour Corps, preceding the N.C.C, in the educational institutions. The expenses of the university were to be met fully by the government. Sree Chithira Thirunal also built the beautifulKowdiar Palace, finished in 1934, which was previously an oldNaluektu given by Sree Moolam Thirunal to his mother Sethu Parvathi Bayi in 1915.[50][51][52]
A famine in 1943 claimed approximately 90,000 lives in Travancore.[53]
However, his prime minister, SirC. P. Ramaswami Iyer, was unpopular among the communists of Travancore. The tension between the Communists and Iyer led to minor riots. In one suchriot in Punnapra-Vayalar in 1946, the Communist rioters established their own government in the area. This was put down by the Travancore Army and Navy. The prime minister issued a statement in June 1947 that Travancore would remain an independent country instead of joining the Indian Union; subsequently, an attempt was made on his life, following which he resigned and left for Madras, to be succeeded by SriP. G. N. Unnithan. According to witnesses such asAiyappan Pillai, constitutional adviser to the Maharaja and historians likeA. Sreedhara Menon, the rioters and mob-attacks had no bearing on the decision of the Maharaja.[54][55] After several rounds of discussion and negotiation between Sree Chithira Thirunal andV. P. Menon, the king agreed that the kingdom should accede to the Indian Union on 12 August 1947.[56] On 1 July 1949 the kingdom of Travancore was merged with the kingdom of Cochin and the short-lived state ofTravancore–Kochi was formed.[57]
On 11 July 1991, Maharaja Sree Chithira Thirunal suffered a stroke and was admitted to a hospital, where he died on 20 July. He had ruled Travancore for 67 years and at his death was one of the few surviving rulers of a first-classprincely state in the oldBritish Raj. He was also the last surviving Knight Grand Commander of both theOrder of the Star of India and of theOrder of the Indian Empire. He was succeeded as head of the Royal House as well as the Titular Maharajah of Travancore by his younger brother,Uthradom Thirunal Marthanda Varma. The Government of India issued a stamp on 6 Nov 1991, commemorating the reforms that marked his reign in Travancore.[58]
The State of Kerala came into existence on 1 November 1956, with a governor appointed by the president of India as the head of state instead of a king.[59] The king was stripped of all political powers and of the right to receiveprivy purses, according to the twenty-sixth amendment of the Indian constitution act of 31 July 1971. He died on 20 July 1991.[60]
Tamils lived in large numbers in theThovalai,Agastheeswaram,Sengottai,Eraniel,Vilavancode,Kalkulam,Devikulam,Neyyattinkara,Thiruvananthapuram South andThiruvananthapuram Northtaluks of erstwhile Travancore State.[5] In these Tamil regions,Malayalam was the official language and there were only a few Tamil schools. This resulted in hardships for Tamils. The Travancore state government continued rejecting the requests of Tamils.[61] During this period the Travancore State Congress favoured the idea of uniting all the Malayalam-speaking regions and forming a "Unified Kerala". In protest against this idea, many Tamil leaders vacated the party. Tamils gathered together atNagercoil on 16 December 1945 under the leadership of Sam Nathaniel and formed the new political party All Travancore Tamilian Congress. That party pushed for the merger of Tamil regions in Travancore with Tamil Nadu.[62] During the election campaign, clashes occurred between the Tamil Nadar community and the Malayali Nair community in Kalkulam–Vilavancode taluks. The police force suppressed the agitating Nadars. In February 1948 police opened fire and two Tamil-speaking Nadars were killed.[63]
In the working committee meeting of Tamilian congress at Eraviputhur on 30 June 1946, the name of the political party was changed to Travancore Tamil Nadu Congress (TTNC). The TTNC was popular among the Tamils living in Thovalai and Agateeswaram taluks. Ma. Po. Sivagnanam (Ma.Po.Si) was the only leader from Tamil Nadu who acted in favour of TTNC.[63] After the independence of India, State Assembly elections were announced in Travancore. As a consequence, TTNC improved its popularity among Tamils. A popular and leading advocate from Vilavancode,A. Nesamony organised a meeting of his supporters at Allan Memorial Hall, Nagercoil on 8 September 1947. In that meeting it was declared that they must achieve their objective through their political organisation, the TTNC. Thereafter TTNC started gaining strength and momentum in Kalkulam–Vilavancode taluks.[64]
TTNC won in 14 constituencies in the election to theState Legislative Assembly. Mr.A. Nesamony was elected as the legislative leader of the party. Under his leadership, the awakened Tamil population was prepared to undergo any sacrifice to achieve their goal.[65]
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In 1950, a meeting was held atPalayamkottai to make compromises between the state congress and the TTNC. The meeting met with failure and Sam Nathaniel resigned from the post of president of the TTNC. P. Ramasamy Pillai, a strong follower of Nesamony, was elected as the new president.[64] The first general election of independent India was held in 1952; TTNC won 8 legislative assembly seats. A. Chidambaranathan became the minister on behalf of TTNC in the coalition state government formed by the Congress. In the parliamentary Constituency, Nesamony was elected as M.P. and in the Rajyasabha seat. Abdul Razak was elected as M.P. on behalf of TTNC.[64] In due course, accusing the Congress government for not showing enough care the struggle of the Tamils, the TTNC broke away from the coalition and the Congress government lost the majority, leading to fresh elections. In 1954 elections, TTNC gained victory in 12 constituencies.[64]Pattom Thanu Pillai was the chief minister for Thiru–Kochi legislative assembly. He engaged hard measures against the agitations of Tamils, especially those in theDevikulam–Peermedu regions, who experiences atrocities by the Travancore Police force. Condemning the attitude of the police, TTNC leaders fromNagercoil went toMunnar and participated in agitations against the prohibitive orders. The leaders were arrested and an uncalm atmosphere prevailed in South Travancore.[66]
On 11 August, Liberation Day celebrations were held at many places in South Travancore. Public meetings and processions were organised. Communists also collaborated with the agitation programmes. Police opened fire at the processions in Thoduvetty (Martandam) and Puthukadai. Nine Tamil volunteers were killed and thousands of TTNC and communist sympathisers were arrested in various parts of Tamil main land. At the end, Pattom Thanu Pillai's ministry was toppled and normalcy returned to the Tamil regions.[65] The central government appointed theFazal Ali Commission (December 1953) for the state's reorganisation based on language. It submitted its report on 10 August 1955. Based on this report, Devikulam–Peermedu andNeyyattinkara taluks were merged with Kerala state.[67] On 1 November 1956 four taluks (Thovalai, Agastheeswaram, Kalkulam, Vilavancode) were recognised to form the New Kanyakumari District and merged with Tamil Nadu state. Half ofSengottai taluk was merged withTirunelveli district. As the TTNC's primary objective was a merger of Travancore's Tamil regions with Tamil Nadu, a major part of its goal had been realised, and it was dissolved thereafter.[65]
Apart fromKanyakumari district, the taluks ofDevikulam andPeermade in present-dayIdukki district also had a Tamil-majority until the late 1940s.[68] The TTNC had also requested to merge these taluks withMadras State.[68] However, due to some decisions ofPattom Thanu Pillai, the first prime minister of Travancore, they were retained in Kerala state.[68] Pattom came up with a colonisation project to re-engineer the demography ofCardamom Hills.[68] His colonisation project was to relocate 8,000 Malayalam-speaking families into the taluks ofDevikulam andPeermade.[68] About 50,000 acres in these taluks, which were Tamil-majority area, were chosen for the colonisation project.[68] As a victory of the colonisation project done by post-independence Travancore, these two taluks and a larger portion of Cardamom Hills were retained in the state of Kerala, afterStates Reorganisation Act (1956).[68]
Under the direct control of the King, Travancore's administration was headed by aDewan assisted by theNeetezhutthu Pillay (secretary),Rayasom Pillay (assistant or under-secretary), as well asRayasoms (clerks) andKanakku Pillamars (accountants). Individual districts were run bySarvadhikaris under the supervision of Dewan, while dealings with the neighbouring states and Europeans was under the purview of theValia Sarvahi, who signed treaties and agreements.[69]
The current heir isRevathi Thirunal Balagopal Varma – the titularElayaraja (crown prince) (born 1953).
| Name | Portrait | Took office | Left office | Term[71] |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| T. Madhava Rao | | 1857 | 1872 | 1 |
| A. Seshayya Sastri |  | 1872 | 1877 | 1 |
| Nanoo Pillai | 1877 | 1880 | 1 | |
| V. Ramiengar |  | 1880 | 1887 | 1 |
| T. Rama Rao |  | 1887 | 1892 | 1 |
| S. Shungrasoobyer |  | 1892 | 1898 | 1 |
| V. Nagam Aiya |  | 1901 | 1904 | 1 |
| K. Krishnaswamy Rao |  | 1898 | 1904 | 1 |
| V. P. Madhava Rao |  | 1904 | 1906 | 1 |
| S. Gopalachari |  | 1906 | 1907 | 1 |
| P. Rajagopalachari | 1907 | 1914 | 1 | |
| M. Krishnan Nair | 1914 | 1920 | 1 | |
| T. Raghavaiah | 1920 | 1925 | 1 | |
| M. E. Watts | 1925 | 1929 | 1 | |
| V. S. Subramanya Iyer | 1929 | 1932 | 1 | |
| T. Austin | 1932 | 1934 | 1 | |
| SirMuhammad Habibullah |  | 1934 | 1936 | 1 |
| SirC. P. Ramaswami Iyer |  | 1936 | 1947 | 1 |
| P. G. N. Unnithan | 1947 | 1947 | 1 |
| No.[a] | Name | Portrait | Term of office[72][73] | Assembly (election) | Appointed by (Monarch) | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| From | To | Days in office | |||||||
| 1 | Pattom A. Thanu Pillai |  | 24 March 1948 | 17 October 1948 | 210 days | Indian National Congress | Representative Body (1948–49) | Sir Chithira Thirunal Balarama Varma, Maharaja of Travancore | |
| 2 | Paravoor T. K. Narayana Pillai |  | 22 October 1948 | 1 July 1949 | 253 days | ||||
In 1856, the princely state was sub-divided into three divisions, each of which was administered by a Divan Peishkar, with a rank equivalent to a District Collector in British India.[74] These were the:
The 1911 Census Report of Travancore states that Padmanabhapuram Division was the original seat of Travancore, whereThiruvithamcode andPadmanabhapuram are located.[4] The report further states that a vast majority of this division was ethnicTamils.[4] Padamanabhapuram Division consisted of the present-day district ofKanyakumari inTamil Nadu.[4] The report also states that the two southernmost taluks of this division, namely Thovalai and Agastheeswaram, geographically too more resembles toPandya Nadu ofTamil country and the easternCoromandel Coast of theMadras Presidency than the rest ofMalayalam country.[4]
This division has been the headquarters of Travancore since 1795.[4] TheNeyyattinkara taluk was a main seat of industry according to the 1911 census report of Travancore.[4] This division also contained many ethnic Tamils, mostly concentrated in the southern taluks ofNeyyattinkara andThiruvananthapuram.[4] The Trivandrum Division consisted of the present-dayThiruvananthapuram district excluding the British colony atAnchuthengu.[4]
Quilon was the capital ofVenad and the largest port town in Travancore, and was also one of the oldest ports onMalabar Coast.[4] The 1911 Census of Travancore states thatMalayalam country began from Quilon division onwards.[4] However, theSengottai taluk of this division, which was earlier underKottarakkara Thampuran, was a Tamil-majority region.[4] Geographically too, Sengottai more resembledMadurai andPandya Nadu than rest of the Malayalam country.[4] The Quilon division encompassed present-dayKollam district,Pathanamthitta district,Alappuzha district, and some parts ofKottayam district.
This division was situated in the northernmost area of Travancore.[4] It was a pure Malayalam-speaking and geographical region.[4] TheVembanad Lake was a specialty of this division.[4]
This division consisted mostly of the present-dayIdukki district.[4] It was also related toPandya Nadu andKongu Nadu.[4] Devikulam division was Tamil-speaking region.[4]
| Year | Pop. | ±% p.a. |
|---|---|---|
| 1816 | 906,587 | — |
| 1836 | 1,280,668 | +1.74% |
| 1854 | 1,262,647 | −0.08% |
| 1875 | 2,311,379 | +2.92% |
| 1881 | 2,401,158 | +0.64% |
| 1891 | 2,557,736 | +0.63% |
| 1901 | 2,952,157 | +1.44% |
| 1911 | 3,428,975 | +1.51% |
| 1921 | 4,006,062 | +1.57% |
| 1931 | 5,095,973 | +2.44% |
| 1941 | 6,070,018 | +1.76% |
| Source:[75][76][77] | ||
Travancore had a population of 6,070,018 at the time of the1941 Census of India.[1]
| Census year | Total population | Hindus | Christians | Muslims | Source | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1816 – 1820 | 906,587 | 752,371 | 82.99% | 112,158 | 12.37% | 42,058 | 4.64% | [79] |
| 1881 | 2,401,158 | 1,755,610 | 73.12% | 498,542 | 20.76% | 146,909 | 6.12% | [5] |
| 1891 | 2,557,736 | 1,871,864 | 73.18% | 526,911 | 20.60% | 158,823 | 6.21% | [80] |
| 1901 | 2,952,157 | 2,063,798 | 69.91% | 697,387 | 23.62% | 190,566 | 6.46% | [79] |
| 1911 | 3,428,975 | 2,298,390 | 67.03% | 903,868 | 26.36% | 226,617 | 6.61% | [79] |
| 1921 | 4,006,062 | 2,562,301 | 63.96% | 1,172,934 | 29.27% | 270,478 | 6.75% | [79] |
| 1931 | 5,095,973 | 3,137,795 | 61.57% | 1,604,475 | 31.46% | 353,274 | 6.93% | [79] |
| 1941 | 6,070,018 | 3,671,480 | 60.49% | 1,963,808 | 32.35% | 434,150 | 7.15% | [78] |
| Census year | Total population | Malayalam | Tamil | Others | Source | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1875 | 2,311,379 | 1,902,533 | 82.32% | 387,909 | 16.78% | 20,937 | 0.91% | [5] |
| 1881 | 2,401,158 | 1,937,454 | 80.69% | 439,565 | 18.31% | 24,139 | 1.01% | [5] |
| 1891 | 2,557,736 | 2,079,271 | 81.29% | 448,322 | 17.53% | 30,143 | 1.18% | [80] |
| 1901 | 2,952,157 | 2,420,049 | 81.98% | 492,273 | 16.68% | 39,835 | 1.35% | [81] |
| 1911 | 3,428,975 | 2,836,728 | 82.73% | 554,618 | 16.17% | 37,629 | 1.10% | [82] |
| 1921 | 4,006,062 | 3,349,776 | 83.62% | 624,917 | 15.60% | 31,369 | 0.78% | [83] |
| 1931 | 5,095,973 | 4,260,860 | 83.61% | 788,455 | 15.47% | 46,658 | 0.92% | [79] |
| Name of Division | Malayalam (%) | Tamil (%) |
| Padmanabhapuram Division | 11.24 | 88.03 |
|---|---|---|
| Thiruvananthapuram Division | 87.05 | 12.09 |
| Quilon Division | 92.42 | 6.55 |
| Cottayam Division | 95.19 | 3.65 |
| Devicolam Division | 36.18 | 59.14 |
| Name of Taluk | Total population | Malayalam | Tamil | Others | ||||
| 1 | Thovalai | 30,260 | 190 | 0.63% | 29,708 | 98.18% | 362 | 1.20% |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2 | Agasteeswaram | 78,979 | 705 | 0.89% | 76,645 | 97.04% | 1,629 | 2.06% |
| 3 | Eraniel | 112,116 | 9,640 | 8.60% | 102,389 | 91.32% | 87 | 0.08% |
| 4 | Culcoolum | 60,908 | 10,528 | 17.29% | 49,930 | 81.98% | 450 | 0.74% |
| 5 | Vilavancode | 69,688 | 18,497 | 26.54% | 51,172 | 73.43% | 19 | 0.03% |
| 6 | Neyyattinkarai | 110,410 | 97,485 | 88.29% | 12,809 | 11.60% | 116 | 0.11% |
| 7 | Thiruvananthapuram South | 51,337 | 39,711 | 77.35% | 10,522 | 20.50% | 1,104 | 2.15% |
| 8 | Thiruvananthapuram North | 51,649 | 38,979 | 75.47% | 11,102 | 21.50% | 1,568 | 3.04% |
| 9 | Nedoomangad | 52,211 | 48,492 | 92.88% | 3,573 | 6.84% | 146 | 0.28% |
| 10 | Sheraingil | 87,072 | 82,339 | 94.56% | 4,629 | 5.37% | 146 | 0.17% |
| 11 | Kottarakkarai | 55,924 | 51,836 | 94.56% | 3,994 | 7.14% | 94 | 0.17% |
| 12 | Pathanapuram | 37,064 | 35,264 | 95.14% | 1,603 | 4.32% | 197 | 0.53% |
| 13 | Sengottai | 30,477 | 7 | 0.02% | 29,694 | 97.43% | 776 | 2.55% |
| 14 | Quilon | 108,469 | 103,775 | 95.67% | 3,650 | 3.37% | 1,044 | 0.96% |
| 15 | Kunnathur | 62,700 | 60,330 | 96.22% | 2,339 | 3.73% | 31 | 0.05% |
| 16 | Karunagapully | 101,039 | 99,079 | 98.06% | 1,814 | 1.80% | 146 | 0.14% |
| 17 | Karthikapully | 81,969 | 79,705 | 97.24% | 1,059 | 1.29% | 1,205 | 1.47% |
| 18 | Mavelikkarai | 111,731 | 107,404 | 96.13% | 4,139 | 3.70% | 188 | 0.17% |
| 19 | Chengannur | 81,301 | 80,295 | 98.76% | 986 | 1.21% | 20 | 0.02% |
| 20 | Thiruvallai | 103,007 | 101,041 | 98.09% | 1,664 | 1.62% | 302 | 0.29% |
| 21 | Ambalappulay | 93,401 | 82,345 | 88.16% | 5,864 | 6.28% | 5,192 | 5.56% |
| 22 | Sharetala | 113,704 | 107,108 | 94.20% | 2,312 | 2.03% | 4,284 | 3.77% |
| 23 | Vycome | 76,414 | 72,827 | 95.31% | 2,684 | 3.51% | 903 | 1.81% |
| 24 | Yettoomanoor | 79,058 | 75,004 | 94.87% | 3,879 | 4.91% | 175 | 0.22% |
| 25 | Cottayam | 64,958 | 63,831 | 98.27% | 722 | 1.11% | 405 | 0.62% |
| 26 | Chunganacherry | 74,154 | 66,481 | 89.65% | 7,394 | 9.97% | 279 | 0.38% |
| 27 | Meenachel | 57,102 | 55,186 | 96.64% | 1,857 | 3.25% | 59 | 0.10% |
| 28 | Moovattupulay | 95,460 | 93,473 | 97.92% | 1,930 | 2.02% | 57 | 0.06% |
| 29 | Todupulay | 24,321 | 23,227 | 95.50% | 1,085 | 4.46% | 9 | 0.04% |
| 30 | Cunnathunad | 109,625 | 108,083 | 98.59% | 831 | 0.76% | 711 | 0.65% |
| 31 | Alangaud | 66,753 | 65,839 | 98.63% | 571 | 0.86% | 343 | 0.51% |
| 32 | Paravoor | 61,966 | 56,495 | 91.17% | 3,332 | 5.38% | 2,139 | 3.45% |
| 33 | Cardamom Hills | 6,228 | 2,253 | 36.18% | 3,683 | 59.14% | 292 | 4.69% |
| - | Travancore | 2,401,158 | 1,937,454 | 80.69% | 439,565 | 18.31% | 24,139 | 1.01% |
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Unlike the rest of India, Travancore divided therupee into unique values, as represented on coins and stamps. The subunits of the currency used in the kingdom were as follows:
| Unit | Equivalent Sub-units |
|---|---|
| 1Rupee | 7Fanams |
| 1 Fanam | 4 Chuckrams |
| 1 Chuckram | 16 Cash |
Cash and Chuckram coins were made of copper whileFanam andRupee coins were made of silver.
Travancore was characterised by the popularity of its rulers among their subjects.[84] TheKings of Travancore, unlike their counterparts in the otherprincely states of India, spent only a small portion of their state's resources for personal use. This was in sharp contrast with some of the northern Indian kings. Since they spent most of the state's revenue for the benefit of the public, they were naturally much loved by their subjects.[85]
Violence rooted in religion orcaste was uncommon in Travancore, but the barriers based on these parameters were rigid.Swami Vivekananda described Travancore as "The Lunatic Asylum in India" due to the level of caste discrimination.[86]Vaikom Satyagraha pointed out the high-level casteism existed in Travancore.
Travancore was once a dominant feudal state during theVenad period, with theNair aristocracy reaching its peak compared to other kingdoms.[9] LaterNairs andTamil Brahmins alone dominated the bureaucracy until the early 20th century. Many political ideologies (such ascommunism) and social reforms were not welcomed in Travancore, and inPunnapra, police fired at communist protesters. The Travancorean royal family are devoutHindus. Some practiced untouchability withBritish officers, European aristocrats, and diplomats. (For instance,Richard Temple-Nugent-Brydges-Chandos-Grenville, 3rd Duke of Buckingham and Chandos, reported thatMaharajaVisakham Thirunal took a bath after touching Richard's wife, to remove ritual pollution, when they visited in 1880.) The decline of the caste system began at the end of the 19th century due to a series ofreformation movements. As a result, the kingdom of Travancore became the region with the highest male literacy rate in India.[87]
Unlike most of India, inSouth Canara and Travancore (and the rest of Kerala), the social status and freedom of women who belong to forward castes were relatively high. An exception was the 19th-centuryUpper Cloth Revolt. The women of backward castes had not the permission to wear upper cloth in Travancore.[86] In some communities, the daughters inherited the property (though property was exclusively administered by men, their brothers) (until 1925), were educated, and had the right to divorce and remarry. Due to laws passed by regent queenSethu Lakshmi Bayi in 1925, patriarchy was established and now women have relatively fewer rights.[88]
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