Transportation in the Philippines covers the transportation methods within thearchipelagic nation of over 7,600 islands. From a previously underdeveloped state of transportation, thegovernment of the Philippines has been improving transportation through various direct infrastructure projects, and these include an increase in air, sea, road, and rail transportation and transport hubs.[1]
Jeepneys are a popular and iconicpublic utility vehicle;[2] they have become a symbol of thePhilippine culture.[3] Another popular mode ofpublic transportation in the country is themotorized tricycles, especially common in smaller urban and rural areas.[4] The Philippines hasfour railway lines:Manila Light Rail Transit System Line 1 (LRT Line 1),LRT Line 2,MRT Line 3, and thePNR Metro Commuter Line operated by thePhilippine National Railways. There are also steam engines found in the Visayas, mostly Negros island, which operate sugar mills such as Central Azucarera.Taxis andbuses are also important modes of public transport in urban areas.
The Philippines has12 international airports and more than 20 major and minor domestic airports serving the country.[5]Ninoy Aquino International Airport is the country's chief airport.[6]
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As of October 2018, the Philippines has 217,317 kilometers (135,035 mi) of roads.[7] The road network consists of:
In 1940, there were 22,970 kilometers (14,270 mi) of road in the entire country, half of which was in central and southern Luzon.[9] The roads served 50,000 vehicles.[9]
Road classification is based primarily on administrative responsibilities (with the exception of barangays), i.e., which level of government built and funded the roads. Most of the barangay roads are unpaved village-access roads built in the past by theDepartment of Public Works and Highways (DPWH), but responsibility for maintaining these roads have been devolved tolocal government units (LGUs). Farm-to-market roads fall under this category, and a few are financed by theDepartment of Agrarian Reform and theDepartment of Agriculture.[10]
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Highways in the Philippines include national roads classified into three types: national primary, national secondary, and national tertiary roads.[11]
ThePan-Philippine Highway is a 3,517 kilometres (2,185 mi) network of roads, bridges, and ferry services that connect the islands ofLuzon,Samar,Leyte, andMindanao, serving as the Philippines' principal transport backbone. The northern terminus of the highway is inLaoag, and the southern terminus is atZamboanga City.
Epifanio de los Santos Avenue (EDSA) is one of the most known highways in thePhilippines. The avenue passes through 6 of the 17 settlements inMetro Manila, namely, the cities ofCaloocan,Quezon City,Mandaluyong,San Juan,Makati andPasay. EDSA is the longest highway in the metropolis and handles an average of 2.34 million vehicles.[12]Commonwealth Avenue is also an important highway in the metropolis, it serves theQuezon City area and has a length of 12.4 km (7.7 mi). Other important thoroughfares in Metro Manila that are part of the Philippine highway network includeEspaña Boulevard,Quezon Avenue,Taft Avenue, and theAlabang–Zapote Road.
Outside Metro Manila, theMacArthur Highway links Metro Manila to the provinces in central and northern Luzon. It is a component of both N1 (from Caloocan toGuiguinto) and N2 (from Guiguinto northwards toLaoag) of the Philippine highway network andRadial Road 9 (R-9) ofMetro Manila's arterial road network. BothKennon Road andAspiras–Palispis Highway are major roads leading to and fromBaguio.Aguinaldo Highway,Jose P. Laurel Highway, Manila South Road, andCalamba–Pagsanjan Road (part ofManila East Road) are the major roads in theCalabarzon region.Andaya Highway (N68) links the province ofQuezon toBicol Region. Located inCebu City is theColon Street, considered the oldest thoroughfare in the country. Among the major highways in Mindanao areSayre Highway,Butuan–Cagayan de Oro–Iligan Road,Surigao–Davao Coastal Road,Davao–Cotabato Road, andMaria Clara L. Lobregat Highway.
TheStrong Republic Nautical Highway links many of the islands' road networks through a series ofroll-on/roll-off ferries, some rather small covering short distances and some larger vessels that might travel several hours or more.
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ThePhilippines has numerous expressways and most of them are located in the main island of the country,Luzon. The first expressway systems in the country are theNorth Luzon Expressway formerly known as North Diversion Road and the South Luzon Expressway, formerly known as South Super Highway. Both were built in the 1970s, during the presidency ofFerdinand Marcos.
TheNorth Luzon Expressway (NLEX) is a 4 to 8-lane limited-access toll expressway that connectsMetro Manila to the provinces of the Central Luzon region. The expressway begins inQuezon City at acloverleaf interchange withEDSA. It then passes through various cities and municipalities in the provinces ofBulacan andPampanga. The expressway ends at Mabalacat and merges with theMacArthur Highway, which continues northward into the rest of Central and Northern Luzon.
TheSouth Luzon Expressway (SLEX) is another important expressway in the country, it serves the southern part of Luzon. The expressway is a network of two expressways that connectsMetro Manila to the provinces ofCalabarzon in the southern part ofLuzon. It starts at thePaco District ofManila then passes throughManila,Makati,Pasay,Parañaque,Taguig andMuntinlupa inMetro Manila;San Pedro,Biñan inLaguna;Carmona inCavite, then transverses again toBiñan,Santa Rosa,Cabuyao andCalamba in the province of Laguna and ends inSanto Tomas,Batangas.
TheSubic–Clark–Tarlac Expressway is another expressway that serves the region of Central Luzon, the expressway is linked to the North Luzon Expressway through the Mabalacat Interchange. Its southern terminus is at theSubic Bay Freeport Zone inZambales, it passes through theClark Freeport Zone and its northern terminus is at Brgy. Amucao inTarlac City. Construction on the expressway began in April 2005, and opened to the public three years later.[13]
TheManila–Cavite Expressway (CAVITEX), a 14-km expressway that runs fromParañaque toKawit, Cavite, also passes throughLas Pinas andBacoor.
TheSouthern Tagalog Arterial Road (STAR), a 41-kilometer expressway that runs through the province of Batangas, connecting Santo Tomas toBatangas City.
TheCavite–Laguna Expressway (CALAX) is an expressway that connects Cavite, Laguna and Metro Manila. As of 2023[update], it connectsSilang andBiñan, with construction ongoing for the remainder.
The Philippine government and other private sectors are building more plans and proposals to build new expressways throughpublic–private partnership.[14]
As of May 2022, there are over 5.8 million registeredmotor vehicles in the country, withmotorcycles andtricycles accounting for 60 percent of all registered motor vehicles, followed byutility vehicles at 18 percent,cars andSUVs at 16 percent, and trucks at 3 percent.[15]
The Philippines'automobile industry started during theAmerican colonial period from 1898 to 1946, with the introduction ofAmerican-made cars, which have been sold in the Philippines ever since. An import substitution policy was developed for the 1950s, which led to the prohibition of and then punishingly high tariffs on the import of fully built-up cars (CBUs) from 1951 until 1972.[16] During the1973 oil crisis,Philippine presidentFerdinand Marcos advised Filipinos to buy smaller, more efficient vehicles withfour-cylinder engines. In the early 1970s, the local Volkswagen assembler attempted to build a native national car, the "Volkswagen Sakbayan" (short forsasakyangkatutubongbayan), to avoid reliance on imported "completely-knocked-down" or "semi-knocked-down" parts, but this did not last long.[17] In 1972 the government instituted the Progressive Car Manufacturing Program (PCMP), a system with scheduled increases in local parts content requirement which also allowed program participants to import a certain proportion of CBU vehicles.[16] The original participants wereGeneral Motors,Ford, PAMCOR (a Chrysler/Mitsubishi joint venture),Delta Motors Corporation (Toyota), andNissan Motor Philippines.
As of May 2022, cars account for 9 percent of all registered motor vehicles in the country, while SUVs account for 7 percent of the total.[15]
Buses, after ferries and airlines, are the next primary mode of long-distance transportation in the Philippines.
Public bus services in the Philippines are divided into two types:provincial buses andcity buses. Provincial buses are used for medium to long-haul routes between cities and towns (including those involving ferries). City bus networks exist in the three metropolitan areas (Metro Manila,Metro Cebu,Metro Davao). Bus services are run by private companies, and routes, operations and fares are regulated by theLand Transportation Franchising and Regulatory Board (LTFRB).
Bus rapid transit (BRT) systems exist in some regions. Extant BRT systems are theEDSA Carousel in Metro Manila and the Clark Loop inClark Freeport Zone. Athird BRT system is under construction inCebu City. Anintegrated bus transit system will also be implemented inDavao City.
Motorcycles are the most dominant form of private transportation in the country, accounting for 49 percent of all registered motor vehicles as of May 2022.[15] ASocial Weather Stations survey in 2021 also reveals that 36 percent of households nationwide reported owning a motorcycle, accounting for 50 percent of vehicle owners.[18] They are commonly used forpackage andfood delivery services to transport goods and are often regarded as a cheaper alternative to buying a private car. Motorcycles are also regarded for their size which allows them to easilysplit through lanes in heavily congested traffic corridors and be easily stored or parked. They have also been used fortaxi services, commonly referred to as anangkas.[19]
The use of motorcycles grew in popularity in the country started in the 1990s with motorcycle enthusiasts that went on leisure rides and delivery companies that sought a cheap, efficient way of moving goods around. Initially limited to American brands, the entry of Chinese, Japanese, and Taiwanese motorcycle brands disrupted the market throughout the early 2000s and sparked a growing interest in motorcycle ownership and usage. By 2005, the number of registered motorcycles surpassed that of cars.[19]
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Limousines are used by thepresident andvice-president of the Philippines, as well as wedding services for wealthy families. Otherwise, they are seldom seen on Philippine roads due to considerations like cost and road traffic conditions but if used, they are utilized for bridal events or limo services. Limousines include theChrysler 300C,Lincoln Town Car,Mercedes-Benz E-Class andS-Class, as well as SUV-based limousines such as theCadillac Escalade andHummer H2.
Jeepneys are the most popular means ofpublic transportation in thePhilippines.[3] They were originally made fromUS militaryjeeps left over fromWorld War II[20] and are known for their flamboyant decoration and crowded seating. They have become a ubiquitous symbol ofFilipino culture.
Original jeepneys were simply refurbished military jeeps byWillys andFord, modern jeepneys are now produced by independently owned workshops and factories in the Philippines with surplus engines and parts coming from Japan. In the central island ofCebu, the bulk of jeepneys are built from second-hand Japanese trucks, originally intended for cargo. These are euphemistically known as "surplus" trucks.
There are two classes of jeepney builders in the Philippines.[3] The backyard builders produce one to five vehicles a month, source their die-stamped pieces from one of the larger manufacturers, and work with used engines and chassis from salvage yards (usually theIsuzu 4BA1, 4BC2, 4BE1 seriesdiesel engines or theMitsubishi Fuso 4D30 diesel engines). The second type is the large volume manufacturer. They have two subgroups: the PUJ, or "public utility jeep," and the large volume metal-stamping companies that supply parts as well as complete vehicles.
The jeepney builders in the past were mostly based inCebu City andLas Piñas. The largest manufacturer of vintage-style army jeepneys is MD Juan. Other makers include Armak Motors (San Pablo, Laguna), Celestial Motors (San Pablo, Laguna), Hebron Motors, LGS Motors, Malagueña (Imus,Cavite), Mega (Lipa, Batangas), Morales Motors (San Mateo, Rizal), and Sarao Motors (Las Piñas). Another manufacturer, PBJ Motors, manufactured jeepneys inPampanga using techniques derived from Sarao Motors. Armak sells remanufactured trucks and vehicles as an adjunct, alongside its jeepneys.
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As of May 2022, motorized tricycles account for 11 percent of all registered motor vehicles in the country.[15]
Taxis are one of the modes of transportation in the country. They are regulated by theDepartment of Transportation (DOTr), theLand Transportation Office (LTO), and theLand Transportation Franchising and Regulatory Board (LTFRB). The taxicabs there vary from models and uses. Most taxicabs have yellow colored license plates, taxi signs, LTFRB Registration number, andtaximeter, which is mandatory in every cab.
Taxis from thePhilippines are mostly used inmetropolitan areas.[citation needed]
Human-powered and animal-powered transport exist in the Philippines in the form of walking,cycling,[22]pedicabs (also known astraysikad orpadyak), and horse- or cattle-drawnkalesas.[23] The United Nations and such organizations as Clean Air Asia[24] support the integration of non-motorized transport as part of a clean and "highly cost-effective transportation strategy" that "brings about large health, economic and social co-benefits, particularly for the urban poor."[25]
InMarikina, the local government constructed a network ofbikeways to help reduce air pollution,greenhouse gas emissions, fuel consumption, and traffic congestion in the city. The bikeways project was awarded by theWorld Health Organization in 2008 in the category ofclimate change and health.[24]
According to a survey conducted by the Social Weather Stations on bicycle ownership in May 2021, over 20 percent of households nationwide reported owning a bicycle, accounting for 27 percent of vehicle owners.[18]
Rail transportation in thePhilippines includes services provided by three rapid transit lines and one commuter rail line: theManila Light Rail Transit System (Lines 1 and 2),Manila Metro Rail Transit System (Line 3) and thePNR Metro Commuter Line. The government has plans to expand the country's railway footprint from 77 kilometers as of 2017 to more than 320 kilometers by 2022.[26] These railway lines are currently operating inMetro Manila, as well as commuter services inCalabarzon and inBicol Region.
TheManila Light Rail Transit System (LRT) is arapid transit system serving the Metro Manila area, it is the first metro system inSoutheast Asia.[27] The system served a total 928,000 passengers each day in 2012.[28][29] Its 31 stations along over 31 kilometers (19 mi) of mostly elevated track form two lines: the originalLine 1, and the more modernLine 2 which passes through the cities ofCaloocan,Manila,Marikina,Pasay,San Juan andQuezon City. Apart from the LRT system, theManila Metro Rail Transit System (MRT) system also servesMetro Manila. The system is located along theEpifanio de los Santos Avenue (EDSA), one of Metro Manila's main thoroughfares. It has 13 stations along its 16.95 km track form a single line which is the Line 3 which passes through the cities ofMakati,Mandaluyong,Pasay andQuezon City. Some of the stations of the system have been retrofitted withescalators andelevators for easier access, and ridership has increased. By 2004, Line 3 had the highest ridership of the three lines, with 400,000 passengers daily.[30]
ThePhilippine National Railways (PNR) operates a commuter line that serves a region from Metro Manila south toward Laguna. PNR, a state-owned railway system of thePhilippines, alongside atramway system in Manila, were established during theSpanish Colonial period.[31] The intercity rail used to provide services on Luzon, connecting northern and southern Luzon with Manila; on the other hand, the tramway served what is known today as Metro Manila. In 1988, the railway line to northern Luzon became disused and later the services to Bicol were halted although plans to revive the southern line are around as of 2017.Panay Railways is a company that ran rail lines onPanay until 1989 andCebu until World War II.
Future projects in the pipeline, such as theNorth–South Commuter Railway (NSCR), a 147-km railway connectingClark Freeport inPampanga toCalamba,Laguna, will utilize the old PNR right of way; theMetro Manila Subway, a 36-kilometer underground rapid transit, will connect fromEast Valenzuela toNAIA Terminal 3 orBicutan; theMRT-4, a 12-kilometer elevated railway, will connectOrtigas Center toTaytay, Rizal; and theMRT-7, a 22-km elevated route, will connect fromNorth EDSA toSan Jose Del Monte,Bulacan.
Motorized and non-motorized boats are the primary mode of water transportation between islands and across inland and coastal waters.[32] The nativebangka is also typically used for fishing, transporting goods, and island hopping tours.[33]
ThePasig River Ferry Service is a river ferry service that servesMetro Manila, it is also the only water-based transportation that cruised thePasig River. The entire ferry network had 17 stations operational and 2 lines. The first line was the Pasig River Line which stretched fromPlaza Mexico inIntramuros,Manila to Nagpayong station inPasig. The second line was theMarikina River Line which served the Guadalupe station inMakati up to Santa Elena station inMarikina.
Because it is an island nation, ferry services are an important means of transportation. A range of ships are used, from large cargo ships to smallpump boats. Some trips last for a day or two on large overnight ferries. There are numerous shipping companies in the Philippines. Notable companies include2GO Travel,Starlite Ferries,Montenegro Lines, andTrans-Asia Shipping Lines.[34] Other trips can last for less than 15 minutes on small, open-air pump boats such as those that cross theIloilo Strait or between theCaticlan jetty port andBoracay island.
The busiest port is thePort of Manila, especially the Manila International Cargo Terminal and the Eva Macapagal Port Terminal, both in the pier area ofManila. Other cities with bustling ports and piers includeBacolod,Batangas City,Cagayan de Oro,Cebu City,Davao City,Butuan,Iligan,Iloilo City,Jolo,Legazpi City,Lucena City,Puerto Princesa,San Fernando,Subic,Zamboanga City,Cotabato City,General Santos,Allen,Ormoc,Ozamiz,Surigao andTagbilaran. Most of these terminals comprise theStrong Republic Nautical Highway, a nautical system conceptualized under the term of PresidentGloria Macapagal Arroyo where land vehicles can use theroll-on/roll-off (ro-ro) ferries to cross between the different islands.
Manila,Iloilo,Cebu,Davao,Clark,Subic,Zamboanga,Laoag,Legazpi andPuerto Princesa are the international gateways to the country, withNinoy Aquino International Airport (NAIA) inManila as the main and premier gateway of the country.[35]
Ninoy Aquino International Airport serves as the primary gateway of thePhilippines, it serves theMetro Manila area and its surrounding regions. It is located in the boundary ofParañaque andPasay in theNational Capital Region. In 2012, NAIA became the 34th busiest airport in the world, passenger volume increased to about eight percent to a total of 32.1 million passengers, making it one of the busiest airports inAsia.[36]
Clark International Airport is also a major gateway to the country. It was originally planned to replaceNinoy Aquino International Airport as the country's premier airport, amid the plan to shut down Ninoy Aquino International Airport.[37] The airport mostly serves low-cost carriers that avail themselves of the lower landing fees than those charged atNAIA.
Other important airports in thePhilippines areMactan–Cebu International Airport inLapu-Lapu City,Cebu;Iloilo International Airport inCabatuan, Iloilo;Francisco Bangoy International Airport inDavao City;Zamboanga International Airport inZamboanga City;Puerto Princesa International Airport inPuerto Princesa,Palawan;General Santos International Airport inGeneral Santos; andBicol International Airport inLegazpi, Albay.
Philippine Airlines (PAL) is the national flag carrier of thePhilippines and is the first commercial airline inAsia.[38]Philippine Airlines remains as the country's biggest airline company, it has the largest number of international flights to thePhilippines as well as domestic flights.[39] As of 2013[update],Philippine Airlines flies to 8 domestic and 58 international destinations in 33 countries and territories acrossAsia,North America,South America,Africa,Oceania andEurope.[40][41][42] The airlines operates hubs inClark,Manila,Cebu, andDavao.
Cebu Pacific is considered to be the country'slow-cost carrier and leading domestic airline, flying to 37 domestic destinations. Since the launching of its international operations in November 2001, flies to 27 destinations in 15 countries and territories across Asia and Oceania.[43] As of 2024[update], the airline operates hubs inManila,Cebu,Davao,Clark, andIloilo.[44]
Other low-cost carriers in the country includeCebgo,PAL Express, andPhilippines AirAsia. These airlines have routes to several tourist destinations in the country.
With the rapid growth in economic activities and urbanization, public utility vehicles, along with private vehicles, exponentially increased in numbers, which resulted in poorer air quality and frequent traffic congestion in the cities.[45]
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Traffic congestion is an issuein Metro Manila. According to John Forbes, a senior advisor at the American Chamber of Commerce at the Philippines, increasing car sales and lack of mass transit and highways cause most traffic congestion, and was feared to make Metro Manila "uninhabitable" by 2020.[46] A TomTom Traffic Index report in 2024 cited Metro Manila as having the worst traffic in the world for a metropolitan area.[47]
Economic losses due to traffic congestion costs about ₱3 billion, as of 2012.[48] By 2030, over ₱6 billion will be lost in the Philippines' economy due to traffic congestion, according toJICA.[49]
![[icon]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aWiki_letter_w_cropped.svg) | This sectionneeds expansion with: Discussion should include comparative figures of different types of vehicles (land, air, sea) as well as figures that compare transport emissions with other sectors, i.e. electricity and industry; Also, MACE study is from 2015 and figures could be significantly different from post-pandemic figures. You can help byadding to it.(August 2023) |
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There are around 270,000 franchised jeepney units on the road across the country, with some 75,000 units in Metro Manila alone.[50] With the country's fast development and economic growth, old-model jeepneys have become the main contributor to air pollution in the cities. According to the Manila Aerosol Characterization Experiment (MACE 2015) study,diesel-powered jeepneys, which account for 20% of the total vehicle fleet, are responsible for 94% of the soot particle mass in Metro Manila.[51][outdated statistic]
According to the President of Partnership for Clean Air Rene Pineda, the issue stems from overpopulation, since more vehicles on the roads increases road congestion, and high-rise buildings and infrastructure means air pollution gets trapped on the ground instead of dispersing.[52]
According to the World Bank, land transport in the Philippines contributed 25 million tons of carbon dioxide equivalent in 2020.[53]
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