J. R. R. Tolkien'sThe Lord of the Rings has been translated, with varying degrees of success,into dozens of languages from the original English. He was critical of some early versions, and made efforts to improve translation by providing a detailed"Guide to the Names inThe Lord of the Rings", alongside an appendix "On Translation" in the book itself.

The complexity of the book, the nature ofTolkien's prose style with its archaisms, and the many names of characters and places combine to make translation into any language a challenge. A specific difficulty is the elaborate relationship between some of the real andinvented languages used in the book.Westron, the common speech of Middle-earth, is "translated" as modern English; this stands in relation toRohirric, an archaic language, which is represented byOld English, and the language of Dale, translated asOld Norse. The three real languages are related. The scholar of literatureThomas Honegger gives possible solutions for this in French and German, but suggests that the small amount of Old English is probably best left untranslated.

Tolkien, an expert inGermanicphilology, scrutinized those that were under preparation during his lifetime, and made comments on early translations that reflect both the translation process and his work. To aid translators, and because he was unhappy with the work of early translators such asÅke Ohlmarks with his Swedish version,^[1] Tolkien wrote his "Guide" in 1967; it was released publicly in 1975 inA Tolkien Compass, and again, retranscribed, in the 2005 bookThe Lord of the Rings: A Reader's Companion.

Linguists have examined translations into several languages, noting the specific difficulties in each case, and the choices and errors that translators have made. Later versions in each language have benefited from the choice of adapting and correcting early versions, or of starting afresh. For instance,Margaret Carroux's careful German version was criticised byWolfgang Krege, who made a new translation, for using a similar linguistic style for the speech of both elves and hobbits, despite the marked differences in the original, while Luis Domènech rendered the working class hobbits' non-standard English into accurate but standard Spanish. Translations have sometimes adopted a domesticating approach: for instance, the first Russian version to be printed substitutes secret police and armed escort for Tolkien's far gentler English policemen.

J. R. R. Tolkien (1892–1973) was an EnglishRoman Catholic writer, poet,philologist, and academic, best known as the author of thehigh fantasy worksThe Hobbit andThe Lord of the Rings.^[2]

The Lord of the Rings was published in 1954–1955; it was awarded theInternational Fantasy Award in 1957. The publication of theAce Books andBallantine paperbacks in the United States helped it to become immensely popular with a new generation in the 1960s. It has remained so ever since, judged by both sales and reader surveys.^[3]

BecauseThe Lord of the Ringspurports to be a translation of the fictitiousRed Book of Westmarch, with the English language in the translation representing theWestron of the original, translators need to imitate the complex interplay between English and non-English (such asElvish) nomenclature in the book. An additional difficulty is the presence of proper names inOld English andOld Norse. Tolkien chose to use Old English for names and some words of theRohirrim, for example, "Théoden", King of Rohan: his name is simply a transliteration of Old Englishþēoden, "king". Similarly, he used Old Norse for "external" names of hisDwarves, such as "Thorin Oakenshield": bothÞorinn andEikinskjaldi are Dwarf-names from theVöluspá.^[4]

• 
  Tolkien accidentally created a linguistic puzzle by using three differentpseudo-translated Germanic languages for peoples in his story, namely English,Old Norse, andOld English.^[4]

The relation of such names to English, within thehistory of English, and of the Germanic languages more generally, is intended to reflect the relation of the purported "original" names to Westron. The Tolkien scholarTom Shippey states that Tolkien began with the words and names that he wanted, and invented parts ofMiddle-earth to resolve the linguistic puzzle he had accidentally created by using different European languages for those of peoples in his legendarium.^[4] The relationships cannot easily be replicated in translations ofThe Lord of the Rings.^[5]

• 
  Tolkien uses the mapping ofOld English to Modern English to represent the mapping of the constructed languages Rohirric to Westron.^[6] Such subtlety is hard to replicate in translation.^[5]

Thomas Honegger suggests how the language nexus might be translated into French:^[7]

Honegger notes that while this type of solution works linguistically, it cannot hope to capture cultural aspects. The people of Rohan, the Rohirrim, speak a Mercian dialect of Old English, and their culture is Anglo-Saxon, despite Tolkien's denial of this in "On Translation".^[7][8] Medieval Latin does nothing to suggest Mercian Anglo-Saxon culture. Honegger suggests that in consequence, the best answer is probably to leave the Old English names and quoted speech untranslated, noting that Tolkien's "Guide to the Names" seems to concur with this approach.^[7] He comments, however, that "a bit of linguistic adaptation to the target language" is sometimes feasible.Éomer could perfectly well, Honegger proposes, shout his greeting to the King in German translation not as "Westu,Théoden, hal!" but as "Sî dû, Thioden, heil!" inOld High German.^[7]

Another difficulty for translators is Tolkien's use of archaism.Allan Turner gives the example of fronting, where Tolkien puts the object at the start of a sentence rather than after the verb: "Weapons they have laid at your doors". Turner points out that this cannot be done in French, while in German it remains a common construction and doesn't give an archaic effect.^[5]

A specific challenge isGollum's distinctiveidiolect, with its simple but ungrammatical syntax and its "schizophrenic" character. His oft-repeated keyword "precious" means both theOne Ring and Gollum himself. His use of pronouns is non-standard: he uses both "I" and "We" to mean himself, and when Gollum talks to hisalter ego Sméagol, "You" also effectively means himself.^[9] Gollum's incorrect plurals, subject-verb agreement, and verb tenses impact translation.^[10] In Chinese, for example, the trend is to ignore Gollum's excessive pluralisation (as in his "pocketses" or "goblinses").^[10]

The first translations ofThe Lord of the Rings to be prepared were those inDutch (1956–1957,Max Schuchart) andSwedish (1959–1960,Åke Ohlmarks). Both took considerable liberties with their material, apparent already from the rendition of the title,In de Ban van de Ring "Under the Spell of the Ring" andHärskarringen "The Ruling Ring", respectively.^[11]

In both the Dutch and the Swedish cases, Tolkien objected strongly while the translations were in progress, especially about the adaptation of proper names. Despite lengthy correspondence, Tolkien did not succeed in convincing the Dutch translator of his objections, and was similarly frustrated in the Swedish case.^[11][12]

OnMax Schuchart's Dutch version,In de Ban van de Ring, Tolkien wrote^[12]

In principle I object as strongly as is possible to the 'translation' of the nomenclature at all (even by a competent person). I wonder why a translator should think himself called on or entitled to do any such thing. That this is an 'imaginary' world does not give him any right to remodel it according to his fancy, even if he could in a few months create a new coherent structure which it took me years to work out. [...] May I say at once that I will not tolerate any similar tinkering with the personal nomenclature. Nor with the name/wordHobbit.

Despite this, the Dutch version stayed largely unchanged except for the names of certain characters.^[13] Further, it led to the only occasion on which Tolkien agreed to be the guest of honour at a "Hobbit-maaltijd", inRotterdam in March 1958, at the invitation of Cees Oubouter of the bookseller Voorhoeve & Dietrich.^[14] Schuchart's translation remains, as of 2008,^[15] the only authorized translation in Dutch;^[13] an unauthorized translation was made by E.J. Mensink-van Warmelo in the late 1970s.^[16][13]

Schuchart's translation has been revised repeatedly, such as in 1965 and 2003 to correct mistakes; and it was revised in 1997 to modernise its vocabulary. Modernisations included losing much of Schuchart's variation of style to suit different speakers such as Elrond and Aragorn in "The Council of Elrond". Since Dutch still inverts word order, Elrond's inversions such as "Fruitless did I call the victory of the Last Alliance?" do not give an archaic effect when translated. Instead, an archaic feeling can be conveyed by word choice, such as Schuchart's 1956viel for "fell" (meaning "was killed"); the 1997 revision used the plainersneuvelde. As another example, Tolkien's archaising "ere" (meaning "before") was the cognateeer in 1956, but this was replaced in 1997.^[17]

Åke Ohlmarks was a prolific translator, who had produced Swedish versions ofShakespeare,Dante and theQur'an, as well as works in Old Norse.^[18] His experience with Old Norse recommended him to the publisherGebers Förlag, and enabled him to find suitable old Swedish words for some of Tolkien's terms: the Tolkien scholar Beregond praises his choices ofalv for "elf", and ofväströna (modelled onnorröna, North Sea coast people of the heroic age) for "Westron". On the other hand, Beregond notes, Ohlmarks failed to useharg for thecognate "harrow" inDunharrow, orskog for "shaw" inTrollshaws, things that "should have been obvious".^[18]

A much more widespread issue was Ohlmarks's "propensity for embroidering every description". Thus, Beregond notes, Tolkien calls Bilbo's wealth "a legend"; Ohlmarks went beyond Tolkien's text to assert that "his travels aresägonomsusade ('legendary') as well."^[18]

Tolkien intensely disliked Ohlmarks' translation ofThe Lord of the Rings (which Ohlmarks namedHärskarringen, 'The Ruling Ring'), more so even than Schuchart's Dutch translation.^[19][20] Ohlmarks' translation remained the only one available in Swedish for forty years, and until his death in 1984, Ohlmarks remained impervious to the numerous complaints and calls for revision from readers.^[11]

AfterThe Silmarillion was published in 1977,Christopher Tolkien consented to a Swedish translation only on condition that Ohlmarks have nothing to do with it. After a fire at his home in 1982, Ohlmarks incoherently charged Tolkien fans with arson, and subsequently published the bookTolkien och den svarta magin ("Tolkien and Black Magic"), attempting to connect Tolkien withblack magic andNazism.^[21]

Ohlmarks' translation was superseded only in 2005, by a plainer and more concise translation by Erik Andersson, written in reaction to it.^[22] Where Ohlmarks had rendered Rivendell asVattnadal ("Waterdale"), or Treebeard asLavskägge ("Lichenbeard"), Andersson usedRiftedal andTrädskägge, far closer in meaning to Tolkien. Andersson cuts down Ohlmarks's name for Mount Doom,Domedagsberget ("Judgement Day Mountain") to the simpler and more direct translationDomberget.^[11] The poems in Andersson's version were translated by Lotta Olsson.^[22] She was bemused by the demands of young Swedish Tolkien fans to keep the names as they were (in Ohlmarks's version) – or else to use the original English names. Andersson rather agreed, but noted that names like "Old Forest" plainly needed to be translated, and that Tolkien had explicitly said so.^[23]

The work was retitledRingarnas herre, "Lord of the Rings", making it, like the text, closer to the English original.^[22]

Frustrated by his experience with Schuchart's Dutch andOhlmarks's Swedish translations, Tolkien asked that^[24]

when any further translations are negotiated, [...] I should be consulted at an early stage. [...] After all, I charge nothing, and can save a translator a good deal of time and puzzling; and if consulted at an early stage my remarks will appear far less in the light of peevish criticisms.

With a view to the planned Danish translation, Tolkien decided to take action in order to avoid similar disappointments in the future. On 2 January 1967, he wrote to Otto B. Lindhardt, of the Danish publisherGyldendals Bibliotek:^[25]

I have therefore recently been engaged in making, and have nearly completed, a commentary on the names in this story, with explanations and suggestions for the use of a translator, having especially in mind Danish and German.

Photocopies were sent to translators ofThe Lord of the Rings by Allen & Unwin from 1967. The first translations to profit from the guideline, and the only ones that did so to appear in Tolkien's lifetime, were those into Danish (Ida Nyrop Ludvigsen) and German (Margaret Carroux); both appeared in 1972. After Tolkien's death, it was published as "Guide to the Names inThe Lord of the Rings", edited byChristopher Tolkien inJared Lobdell's 1975A Tolkien Compass.^[26] In 2005,Wayne G. Hammond andChristina Scull newly transcribed and slightly edited Tolkien's typescript; they re-published it under the title ofNomenclature of The Lord of the Rings in their bookThe Lord of the Rings: A Reader's Companion.^[27]

Tolkien uses the abbreviationsCS for "Common Speech, in original text represented by English", andLT for the target language of the translation. His approach is the prescription that if in doubt, a proper name should not be altered but left as it appears in the English original:^[28]

All names not in the following list should be leftentirely unchanged in any language used in translation (LT), except that inflexionals, es should be rendered according to the grammar of the LT.^[28]

The names in English form, such asDead Marshes, should in Tolkien's view be translated straightforwardly, while the names inElvish should be left unchanged. The difficult cases are those names where^[28]

the author [Tolkien], acting as translator of Elvish names already devised and used in this book or elsewhere, has taken pains to produce a CS name that is both a translation and also (to English ears) aeuphonious name of familiar English style, even if it does not actually occur in England.^[28]

Examples areRivendell, the translation ofSindarinImladris "Glen of the Cleft",^[28] andWesternesse, the translation ofNúmenor.^[29] The list gives suggestions for some "old, obsolescent, or dialectal words in the Scandinavian and German languages".^[28]

The first Italian version, initially ofThe Fellowship of the Ring only, byVittoria Alliata di Villafranca, aged only 17 at the time, was brought out by Mario Ubaldini'sEdizione Astrolabio in 1967. She studiously followed Tolkien'sGuide, and chose to begin with the appendices, so as to gain a deeper understanding of the book. As for her approach to translating names, she translated (rather than renamed or transliterated)Sackville-Baggins asBorsi-Sacconi ("Bags-Sacks"). For terms that seemed "exotic", she "adopted Greek or even Arabic etymologies; if it had to be familiar or evocative, Latin or Italian etymologies: always, however, [I sought to create] Italian origins that were plausible".^[30] Alliata stated that Ubaldini sent the first pages of her translation to Tolkien.^[30] Tolkien seems to have asked for an opinion on the sample, as he wrote in a letter that "someone ... whose opinion he respects" had praised the translation.^[30][31] The translation lost some of the "refined style" of Tolkien's writing, but it was largely "accurate and faithful" to the original.^[30] The attempt to market it was unsuccessful, and the volume sold only some hundreds of copies, leading Ubaldini to abandon the project. The other two volumes of Alliata's translation were eventually brought out by other publishers.^[30][32]

A second Italian translation, made by Ottavio Fatica, was published byBompiani in 2019 to 2020. Fatica had access to Alliata's text; she became offended by his remarks about her translation, and a legal dispute followed. The Tolkien scholar Roberto Arduini commended Fatica's version, stating that it cast "a generous, exuberant, playful spell". The literary critic Cesare Catà on the other hand compared it unfavourably to Alliata's version, saying that it was dry and humdrum, to be categorised not as epic but as Young Adult fiction.^[30]

Marcantonio Savelli identifies two "recurring trends" in Fatica's version, namely an unjustifiably "low and strongly colloquial tone" not reflecting the original, and the equally unjustifiable use (in his view) of modern technical terms. Among numerous examples that he analyses, Savelli objects, for instance, to the phraseorganizzate attività di sussistenza ("organized subsistence activities"), which in his view is far too modern and technical for the context:^[32] The Italian Association for Tolkien Studies comments that Fatica's version has triggered years of debate between supporters of the two versions, but that this has had the merit of getting people in Italy to think about Tolkien's style of writing.^[33]

Savelli comments thatben conservato is an over-literal rendering into an Italian phrase that never refers to a person. He is especially critical Fatica's use of "the adjectivepittati" (a plural form, roughly meaning "painted"). In his view, this "grammatically incorrect colloquial term ... deserves to be highlighted as one of the most cacophonous mistakes in the entire translation. It is a term that a reasonably well-educated Italian person would avoid even in spoken language, let alone in a written text of any nature."^[32] As for Fatica'svecchio intronizzato, Savelli writes thatvecchio is disrespectful where a term of praise is required by the context, whileintronizzato is both technical and obscure, and wholly unsuitable for the poetic context.^[32]

Francesca Raffi writes that the two Italian translations, made many years apart, differ because of the changed sociocultural context, with changed conceptions of Tolkien's writing and of how visible a translator ought to be. These give the translated text "a new image, new meanings, and a new reception."^[30]

Savelli concludes that Fatica may have been attempting to transform Tolkien's text into something else to make it "more 'digestible' by detractors of the Fantasy genre" or of Tolkien's "'unfashionable' reactionary mentality", so as to create "a modernized Tolkien" to replace the "'medieval' one".^[32]

Tolkien's "Guide to the Names in The Lord of the Rings", gained him a larger influence on translations into otherGermanic languages, namelyDanish andGerman. TheFrankfurt-basedMargaret Carroux qualified for the German version published by Klett-Cotta on the basis of her translation of Tolkien's short story "Leaf by Niggle", that she had made solely to give him a sample of her work. In her preparation forThe Lord of the Rings (Der Herr der Ringe), unlike Schluchart and Ohlmarks, Carroux even visited Tolkien in Oxford in December 1967 with a suitcase full of his published works and questions about them. Tolkien and his wife both had a cold at the time, resulting in a "chilly" and inhospitable meeting, with Tolkien "harsh", "taciturn" and "severely ill".^[34][35] Later correspondence with Carroux was much more encouraging; Tolkien was delighted with Carroux's work, with the sole exception ofthe poems and songs. Carroux had had them translated by the poet Ebba-Margareta von Freymann, but was unsatisfied by the result.^[34]

On several instances Carroux departed from the literal, e.g. for theShire. Tolkien endorsed theGouw of the Dutch version and remarked that GermanGau "seems to me suitable in Ger., unlessits recent use in regional reorganization underHitler has spoilt this very old word." Carroux decided that this was indeed the case, and opted for the more artificial compoundAuenland "meadow-land" instead.^[34] The Tolkien scholar Susanne Stopfel describes the translation as a whole as treating its source with "enormous respect".^[34]

In 2000, Klett-Cotta published a new translation byWolfgang Krege, to accompany Carroux's. It focuses more on the differences inlinguistic style that Tolkien employed to set apart the more biblical prose and the high style of elvish and human 'nobility' from the more colloquial 1940s English spoken by the Hobbits, something that Krege thought Carroux's more unified version was lacking; the poems were unchanged. The translation met a mixed reception; critics felt that he took too many liberties in modernising the language of the Hobbits into the linguistic style of late 1990s German. They commented that this subverted the epic style of the narrative, departing from Tolkien. The 2012 edition of Krege has reverted the most controversial of his decisions.^[34] The linguist Rainer Nagel contrasts the versions, writing that Krege corrects many errors in Carroux, but "often overshoots its target of modernising" as Krege seeks to "assimilat[e]" the text into a style unsuitable for Tolkien, creating a "translator-centred approach".^[36]

Tolkien did not live to see an Icelandic version of his novel, but in 1973 he told Ungfrú Aðalsteinsdottir that he was delighted she was working on one. He stated that he "had long hoped" for such a thing, as he felt that the language "would fit it better than any other I have any adequate knowledge of".^[37]

The first French translation came out in 1972–73: Francis Ledoux'sLe Seigneur des Anneaux, published by Christian Bourgois. Tolkien was largely unknown to French readers at the time:Bilbo le Hobbit had only appeared in 1969. Even the fantasy genre was poorly understood:fantaisie translates to "whim or fancy", whileThe Lord of the Rings is notfantastique, fantastical, Ferré insists, butmerveilleux, full of wonders.^[38]

The French TolkienistVincent Ferré and colleagues, noting Tolkien's words in "On TranslatingBeowulf" that "therein lies the unrecapturable magic of ancient English verse ...: profound feeling, and poignant vision, filled with the beauty and mortality of the world, are aroused by brief phrases, light touches, short words resounding like harp-strings sharply plucked."^[38][39] Ferré comments thatThe Lord of the Rings is so much likeBeowulf that its translation is forbiddingly difficult.^[38]

In Ferré's view, Ledoux, a skilful translator, had been a little incautious in some of his choices, such as on matters of race. He used the French wordrace which is already a pejorative. He chosenoiraud, "a very dark-skinned person", for Tolkien's "black-like" and again for Tolkien's "black chap", but the hobbits concerned had seen only the Black Rider's clothing. Ferré writes thatun type en noir, indicating only that the clothing was black, would have been better. A generation later, Frenchfar-right readers might, Ferré comments, read a wholly unintended meaning into the text.^[38] Ledoux makes another mistake, in Ferré's view, in explicitly mentioning God whereTolkien carefully avoids doing that, as inDieu le bénisse for "Bless him".^[38]

A special challenge is in translating the carefully-crafted varieties of speech of Tolkien's more idiosyncratic characters. Ledoux rendersGollum's^[38]

"'What had it got in its pocketses?' he said. 'It wouldn't say, no precious. Little cheat...'"

as what Ferré calls the prosaic^[38]

'Qu'avait-il dans ses poches?' disait-il. 'Je ne pouvais le dire, pas de trésor. Petite tricherie...'

Ferré comments that the translation "diminishes the peculiarities" of the speech of bothGaffer Gamgee and of Gollum; he suggests that Ledoux should have chosen something like (Ferré's emphasis)^[38]

'Qu'est-ce que ça avait dans ses pochess?' disait-il. 'Ça ne voulait pas le dire, non, trésor.Petit tricheur...'

The choice of French terms for placename elements is especially tricky, as, Ferré remarks, "some names have, besides a purely historical depth, a connection with literary history, and take on additional resonances."^[38] Thus, "Brandy Hall" uses the Beowulfian term "hall", a word "full of echoes". Ledoux selectschâteau, castle, which to Ferré's ear "sounds too 'Arthurian' and 'grand'". Worse, Ledoux useschâteau also for "Bucklebury" withChâteaubouc. Ferré comments that since Tolkien glosses "-bury" as coming from the Old English wordburg, a fortified place, Bucklebury could better have been renderedFertébouc, usingFerté, a similarly antique French word for fortified town still used in some French placenames.^[38]

Interest in Russia awoke soon after the publication ofThe Lord of the Rings in 1955, long before the first Russian translation.A first effort at publication was made in the 1960s, but in order to comply with literary censorship inSoviet Russia, the work was considerably abridged and transformed. The ideological danger of the book was seen in the "hidden allegory 'of the conflict between the individualist West and the totalitarian, Communist East'", while, ironically, Marxist readings in the West conversely identifiedTolkien's anti-industrial ideas as presented in the Shire withprimitive communism, in a struggle with the evil forces oftechnocraticcapitalism.^[40][41] Russian translations ofThe Lord of the Rings circulated secretly assamizdat and were published only after thecollapse of the Soviet Union, but then in great numbers.^[40]Tolkien fandom grew especially rapidly during the early 1990s atMoscow State University. Many unofficial and incomplete translations are in circulation.^[42]

The first translation to appear in print wasVladimir Muravyov andAndrey Kistyakovsky's (1982–1992); the linguist and Tolkien scholar Mark Hooker describes this as "a very much russified version".^[42] He takes as an example their rendering of the Shirriff-leader's speech to the four homecoming hobbits after their quest:

Hooker comments that the whole 1982 text is "much more full of doom and gloom" than the original.^[42] He describes the rendering of the Shirrif-leader's speech as an "imitation of a Russian policeman making an arrest", calling it "an elegant equal" to Tolkien's "English bobby".^[42] He comments that the Russian version however contains "loaded words" that make the speech "specificallySoviet". The term "Generalissimo" was used only of the dictatorStalin; Hooker notes that the translators went even further in the same chapter, using the highly-charged wordВождь ("Vozhd") for Tolkien's "Boss". He comments that even though this was the most direct rendering of the word, Muravyov and Kistyakovsky's was the only translation that dared to identify Stalin so directly.^[42] It was used in the 1991Khraniteli television play ofThe Fellowship of the Ring.^[44]

The first translation ofThe Lord of the Rings into Hebrew (שר הטבעות,Sar ha-Tabbaot) was made byCanaanite movement member Ruth Livnit, aided by the poet Uriel Ofek forthe verse, in 1977. It was revised by Emanuel Lottem using the second English edition, which retained the names of the previous translators. Lottem was described as the editor, as the least costly option for the publishers.^[46] Lottem's version replaced Livnit's in bookshops, helping to stoke a heated controversy.^[46] Danny Orbach writes that older Tolkien fans like Livnit's "old, traditional, and literary Hebrew" full of mythological, "mostly Biblical" terms. Thus, Livnit translates "horn" asshofar, asynagogue's ceremonial ram's horn, where the ordinary word would be "keren" (קרן). Or again, she uses "ha'arelim" (הערלים), "uncircumcised", for "heathen", again with religious overtones. Such language gave the translation an impressively "high register" which many Israelis found beautiful and even magical.^[46]

Lottem, charged with editing Livnit's version, mixed his preferred, rather technical, modern Hebrew with Livnit's "archaic and rich diction", creating an "odd" result. He found and corrected many mistakes, but introduced a much lower style, including slang. Orbach writes that new, mainly teenage readers prefer Lottem, whether because they "cannot appreciate the beauty of Livnit's Hebrew, or ... prefer accuracy to beauty in translation".^[46][47] Another difference between the two versions is the handling of names. Livnit translated "Elves" as "בני לילית" (Bneyi Lilith, i.e. the "Children ofLilith"). Lottem transcribes it as "Elefs", maintained through Yiddish as "עלף". The change was made because "Bneyi Lilith" recalls the Babylonian-derived Jewish folklore character of Lilith, mother of all demons, an inappropriate context for Tolkien's Elves.^[45] Livnit did not know of Tolkien's rules for translating names, resulting in many errors. Lottem translated the appendices and followed Tolkien's instructions there. Livnit made no reference to Tolkien's legendarium, and therefore either inaccurately translated or dropped parts of the story relating to events inThe Silmarillion andThe Hobbit. She created major inconsistencies in transcription and in repetitions of similar text within the story; Ofek made similar errors in the verse.^[46]

Orbach states that it is necessary when translating an epic to use the mythology of the target language: "a Japanese translation must use Shinto and Samurai terminology (as ... Teji Seta actually did)". Hebrew was extinct for nearly 2000 years except for religious use until the 20th century, and the very young language of modern Hebrew "lacks the richness of its ancestor", making it unsuitable for translating an epic likeThe Lord of the Rings. In his view, therefore, Livnit was right to choose a high style.^[46]

The first Spanish translation was made under thepseudonym of Luis Domènech (Francisco Porrúa) in 1977–1980. The linguist Sandra Bayona writes that the translation often renders the speech of characters such asworking-class hobbits in grammatically correct Spanish, where Tolkien used non-standard English. Bayona comments that Tolkien uses styles of speech both to distinguish individual characters and to indicate which group they belong to. He does this, she notes, completely regularly, even if this means repetition.^[48]

In the case of the working-class hobbits, she shows that characters including Ham Gamgee, Sam Gamgee, Cotton, Hob Hayward, farmer Maggot, and Robin Smallburrow all make use of multiple non-standard English forms. These include duplicating the subject ("Mr. Drogo, he married..."), double negatives ("Talking won't mend nothing"), altered subject-verb agreement ("'Elves and dragons!' I says to him"), elision of sounds ("[My dogs] won't harm you – not unless I tell'em to."), and coined word-forms ("jools" for jewels, "trapessing" for traipsing).^[48] Further, they use certain expressions, such as "begging your pardon", "I reckon", and "if you understand [me]" repeatedly.^[48] The translation, Bayona explains, either omits these effects altogether, or, as with double negatives, renders them accurately in standard Spanish (where double negation like "Con hablarno remediamosnada" (her emphasis) is grammatically correct). A rare exception, writes Bayona, is the coinagemedoreando instead of standard Spanishmerodeando to represent "trapessing"; she comments "it certainly marks Ham [Gamgee] in the eyes of the reader."^[48]

The effect of the standard Spanish rendering is to continuously tone down Tolkien's construction of differences in style of speech. Bayona concludes that this does not change the plot, nor how the reader sees the characters, but it does sacrifice some of the additional cues that Tolkien provides about each character's social class and individuality.^[48]

Li Hong-man writes that there are multiple obstacles to creating a Chinese version ofThe Lord of the Rings. These include the large distance between the languages and cultures, and lack of familiarity with the work's themes and subject matter. Li compares two Chinese versions: that ofLucifer Chu (Zhu Xueheng) published by Linking Books inTaipei (Taiwan) in 2001–02, and that of Ding Di (丁棣), Yao Jingrong (姚镜镕), and Tang Dingjiu (汤定九), published byYilin Press (Nanjing, China) in 2001. Li states that Ding et al's version may be more literary, at the cost of making it "sound like a traditional Chinesewuxia [martial arts fiction] story".^[49] In contrast, Chu, more familiar with Western fantasy, has written a far more popular version. Taking the example of theRhyme of the Rings, Ding et al use a modern Chinese poetry format, whereas Chu uses a classical format likely to be familiar to a Chinese readership. Chu translates the chapter title "A Knife in the Dark" rather directly (黑暗中的小刀,Hēi'àn zhōng de xiǎodāo), whereas Ding et al render it more elaborately (夤夜劍光,Yínyè jiàn guāng, "The light of the sword in the night").^[49]

A different tradition is of theyouxia, a Chinese analogue of Europe's chivalricknights-errant. Ding et al's version renders "The Passing of the Grey Company" as游侠骑士youxia qishi, "the wanderingxia riders". Eric Reinders comments that Aragorn fits this mould well, while others like Boromir, Gandalf, Legolas, and Gimli "loosely" approximate it; but the anti-heroic hobbits absolutely do not.^[50]

The translations approach names very differently, too. Chu transliterates the nameRivendell (瑞文戴爾Ruì wén dài'ěr, sounding something like the original), whereas Ding et al follow Tolkien's advice in his "Guide to the Names" and translate its meaning (林谷língǔ, "Forest Valley").^[49]

• Translations ofThe Hobbit
• Bibliography of J. R. R. Tolkien
• The Etymologies
• List of Tolkien societies internationally
• Bored of the Rings translations

• Andersson, Erik (5 October 2015).Översättarens anmärkningar : dagbok från arbetet med Ringarnas herre [Translator's Notes: diary from my work onThe Lord of the Rings] (in Swedish).Norstedts.ISBN 978-91-1-307110-7.
• Carpenter, Humphrey, ed. (2023) [1981].The Letters of J. R. R. Tolkien: Revised and Expanded Edition. New York:HarperCollins.ISBN 978-0-35-865298-4.
• Hammond, Wayne G.;Scull, Christina (2005).The Lord of the Rings: A Reader's Companion. London:HarperCollins. 750-782.ISBN 0-00-720907-X.
• Honegger, Thomas, ed. (2011a).Tolkien in Translation. Cormarë series. Vol. 4. Zurich:Walking Tree Publishers.ISBN 978-3-9521424-6-2.
• Honegger, Thomas (2011b) [2004]. "The Westron Turned into Modern English: The Translator and Tolkien's Web of Languages". In Honegger, Thomas (ed.).Translating Tolkien: Text and Film. Cormarë series. Vol. 6.Walking Tree Publishers. pp. 1–18.ISBN 978-3-9521424-9-3.
• Hooker, Mark T. (2003).Tolkien Through Russian Eyes. Zurich:Walking Tree Publishers.ISBN 978-3-9521424-7-9.OCLC 54771230.
• Lobdell, Jared (1975). "Guide to the Names in The Lord of the Rings".A Tolkien Compass. Chicago, Illinois:Open Court Publishing. pp. 153–201.ISBN 0-87548-303-8.
• Reinders, Eric (2024).Reading Tolkien in Chinese.Bloomsbury Publishing.ISBN 978-1-350-37465-2.
• Shippey, Tom (2005) [1982].The Road to Middle-Earth: How J. R. R. Tolkien Created a New Mythology (Third ed.).HarperCollins.ISBN 978-0-261-10275-0.
• Tolkien, J. R. R. (1955).The Return of the King.The Lord of the Rings. Boston:Houghton Mifflin.OCLC 519647821.
• Turner, Allan (2005).Translating Tolkien: Philological Elements in 'The Lord of the Rings'. Duisburger Arbeiten zur Sprach– und Kulturwissenschaft. Vol. 59. Frankfurt:Peter Lang.ISBN 3-631-53517-1.

• Complete list of translations to 2019 ofThe Lord of the Rings (with bibliographical details)

• Translations of The Lord of the Rings
• Lists of fantasy books

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