Transjordan شرق الأردن Sharq al ʾUrdun | |
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_1955.png) Map of Transjordan in 1955 | |
| Countries |  Jordan |
Transjordan, also known as theEast Bank[1] or theTransjordanian Highlands (Arabic:شرق الأردن,romanized: Sharq al ʾUrdun,lit. 'East of theJordan'), is the part of theSouthern Levant east of theJordan River, mostly contained in present-dayJordan.
Theregion, known as Transjordan, was controlled by numerous powers throughout history. During theearly modern period, the region of Transjordan was included under the jurisdiction ofOttoman Syrian provinces. After theGreat Arab Revolt against Ottoman rule during the 1910s, theEmirate of Transjordan was established in 1921 byHashemiteEmirAbdullah, and theemirate became aBritish protectorate. In 1946, the emirate achieved independence from the British and in 1949 the country changed its name to the "Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan", after the Jordanian annexation of the West Bank following the1948 Arab–Israeli War.
The prefixtrans- isLatin and means "across" or beyond, and so "Transjordan" refers to the landon the other side of theJordan River. The equivalent term for the west side is theCisjordan – literally, "on this side of the [River] Jordan". Both terms reflect the biblical perspective, as different regions were seen when looked at from theHoly Land.
TheTanakh'sHebrew:בעבר הַיַּרְדֵּן מִזְרָח הַשֶּׁמֶשׁ,romanized: bʿēḇer hayyardēn mizrāḥ haššemeš,lit. 'beyond the Jordan towards the sunrise',[2] is translated in theSeptuagint[3] toAncient Greek:πέραν τοῦ Ιορδάνου,,romanized: translit. péran toú Iordánou,,lit. 'beyond the Jordan', which was then translated toLatin:trans Iordanen,lit. 'beyond the Jordan' in theVulgate. However, some authors give theHebrew:עבר הירדן,romanized: ʿēḇer hayyardēn,lit. 'beyond the Jordan', as the basis for Transjordan, which is also theModern Hebrew usage.[4] Whereas the term "East" as in "towards the sunrise" is used inArabic:شرق الأردن,romanized: Sharq al ʾUrdun,lit. 'East of the Jordan'.
TheShasu were Semitic-speaking cattle nomads in the Levant from the late Bronze Age to the Early Iron Age. In a 15th-century BCE list of enemies inscribed on column bases at the temple ofSoleb built byAmenhotep III, six groups of Shasu are noted; the Shasu ofS'rr, the Shasu ofRbn, the Shasu ofSm't, the Shasu ofWrbr, the Shasu ofYhw, and the Shasu ofPysps. Some scholars link theIsraelites and the worship of adeity namedYahweh with the Shasu.
The Egyptian geographical termRetjenu is traditionally identified as an area covering Sinai and Canaan south of Lebanon,[5] with the regions ofAmurru andApu to the north.[6] As such, parts of Canaan and southwestern Syria became tributary to thepharaohs ofancient Egypt before theLate Bronze Age collapse. When Canaanite confederacies centered onMegiddo andKadesh came under the control of theNew Kingdom of Egypt. However, the empire's control was sporadic, and not strong enough to prevent frequent local rebellions and inter-city conflict.
During theLate Bronze Age collapse theAmorites of Syria disappeared after being displaced or absorbed by a new wave of semi-nomadicWest Semitic-speaking peoples known collectively as theAhlamu. Over time, theArameans emerged as the dominant tribe amongst the Ahlamu;[citation needed] with the destruction of the Hittites and the decline of Assyria in the late 11th century BCE, they gained control over much of Syria and Transjordan. The regions they inhabited became known asAram (Aramea) andEber-Nari.
TheBook of Numbers (chapter32) tells how the tribes of Reuben and Gad came toMoses to ask if they could settle in the Transjordan. Moses is dubious, but the two tribes promise to join in theconquest of the land, so Moses grants them this region to live in. TheTribe of Manasseh is not mentioned until verse 33.David Jobling suggests that this is because Manasseh settled in the land that previously belonged toOg north of theZarqa, while Reuben and Gad settledSihon's land, which lay south of the Zarqa. Since Og's territory was not on the route to Canaan, it was "more naturally part of the Promised Land", and so the Manassites' status is less problematic than that of the Reubenites or Gadites.[7]
InJoshua 1,Joshua affirms Moses' decision and urges the men of the two-and-a-half tribes to help in the conquest, which they are willing to do. InJoshua 22, the Transjordanian tribes returned and built a massive altar called theWitness by the Jordan River. This causes the "whole congregation of the Israelites" to prepare for war. They first sent a delegation to the Transjordanians, accusing them of making God angry and suggesting their land may be unclean. In response to this, the Transjordanians said that the altar is not for offerings, but is only a "witness". The western tribes were satisfied and return home. Assis argues that the unusual dimensions of the altar suggest that it "was not meant for sacrificial use", but was, in fact, "meant to attract the attention of the other tribes" and provoke a reaction.[8]
Per the settlement of the Israelite tribes east of the Jordan, Burton MacDonald notes;
There are various traditions behind the Books of Numbers, Deuteronomy, Joshua, Judges, and 1 Chronicles' assignment of tribal territories and towns to Reuben, Gad, and the half-tribe of Manasseh. Some of these traditions provide only an idealized picture of Israelite possessions east of the Jordan; others are no more than vague generalizations. Num 21.21–35, for example, says only that the land the people occupied extended fromWadi Arnon toWadi Jabbok, the boundary of theAmorites.[9]
There is some ambiguity about the status of the Transjordan in the mind of the biblical writers. Horst Seebass argues that in Numbers "one finds awareness of Transjordan as being holy toYHWH."[11] He argues for this based on the presence of theCities of Refuge there, and because land taken in aholy war is always holy.Richard Hess, on the other hand, asserts that "the Transjordanian tribes were not in the land of promise."[12]Moshe Weinfeld argues that in the Book of Joshua, the Jordan is portrayed as "a barrier to thepromised land",[10] but inDeuteronomy1:7 and11:24, the Transjordan is an "integral part of the promised land."[13]
Unlike the other tribal allotments in Joshua, the Transjordanian territory was not divided by lot.Jacob Milgrom suggests that it is assigned by Moses rather than by God.[14]
Lori Rowlett argues that in the Book of Joshua, the Transjordanian tribes function as the inverse of theGibeonites (mentioned inJoshua 9). Whereas the former have the right ethnicity, but wrong geographical location, the latter have the wrong ethnicity, but are "within the boundary of the 'pure' geographical location."[15]
According toGenesis, (19:37–38),Ammon andMoab were born toLot and Lot's younger and elder daughters, respectively, in the aftermath of the destruction ofSodom and Gomorrah. The Bible refers to both theAmmonites and Moabites as the "children of Lot". Throughout the Bible, the Ammonites and Israelites are portrayed as mutual antagonists. During theExodus, the Israelites were prohibited by the Ammonites from passing through their lands (Deuteronomy 23:4). In theBook of Judges, the Ammonites work withEglon, king of the Moabites against Israel. Attacks by the Ammonites on Israelite communities east of the Jordan were the impetus behind the unification of the tribes underSaul (1 Samuel 11:1–15).
According to bothBooks of Kings (14:21–31) andBooks of Chronicles (12:13),Naamah was an Ammonite. She was the only wife of KingSolomon to be mentioned by name in theTanakh as having borne a child. She was the mother of Solomon's successor,Rehoboam.[16]
The Ammonites presented a serious problem to thePharisees because many marriages with Ammonite (and Moabite) wives had taken place in the days ofNehemiah (Nehemiah 13:23). The men had married women of the various nations without conversion, which made the children not Jewish.[17] The legitimacy ofDavid's claim to royalty was disputed on account of his descent from Ruth, the Moabite.[18] King David spent time in the Transjordan after he had fled from the rebellion of his sonAbsalom (2 Samuel 17–19).
TheDecapolis is named from its ten cities enumerated byPliny the Elder (23–79). What Pliny callsDecapolis,Ptolemy (c. 100–c. 170) callsCœle-Syria.[19] Ptolemy does not use the term "Transjordan", but rather the periphrasis "across the Jordan".[20] And he enumerates the cities; Cosmas,Libias,Callirhoe, Gazorus, Epicaeros—as being in this district—east of the Jordan, thatJosephus et al. calledPerea.[21][22][23][24]
Jerash was a prominent central community for the surrounding region during theNeolithic period[25] and was also inhabited during theBronze Age. Ancient Greek inscriptions from the city, and the literary works ofIamblichus and theEtymologicum Magnum indicate that the city was founded as "Gerasa" byAlexander the Great or his generalPerdiccas, for the purpose of settling retiredMacedonian soldiers (γῆρας—gēras—means "old age" in Ancient Greek). It was a city of the Decapolis, and is one of the most important and best preserved Ancient Roman cities in theNear East.
TheNabataeans' trading network was centered on strings of oases that they controlled. TheNabataean kingdom reached its territorial zenith during the reign ofAretas III (87-62 BCE), when it encompassed parts of the territory of modern Jordan, Syria, Saudi Arabia, Egypt and Israel.
Bosra is located in a geographical area called theHauran plateau. The soil of thisvolcanic plateau made it a fertile region for thecultivation of domesticatedcereals during theNeolithic Agricultural Revolution. The city was noted in Egyptian documents of the 14th century BCE, and was situated on the trade routes where caravans brought spices from India and the Far East across the eastern desert while other caravans brought myrrh and frankincense from the south. The region of Hauran then called "Auranitis" came under the control of the Nabataean kingdom. And the city of Bosra then called "Bostra" became the northern capital of the kingdom while its southern capital wasPetra. AfterPompey's military conquest of Syria, Judaea, and Transjordan. Control of the city was later transferred toHerod the Great and his heirs until 106 CE, when Bosra was incorporated into the new Roman province ofArabia Petraea.
TheHerodian kingdom of Judaea was a client state of theRoman Republic from 37 BCE, and includedSamaria andPerea. And when Herod died in 4 BCE, the kingdom was divided among his sons into theHerodian Tetrarchy.
Provincia Arabia Petraea or simply Arabia, was a frontier province of the Roman Empire beginning in the 2nd century. It consisted of the former Nabataean kingdom in the southern Levant, Sinai Peninsula, and northwestern Arabian peninsula.
TheLordship of Oultrejordain (Old French for "beyond the Jordan"), also called the Lordship of Montreal, otherwise Transjordan, was part of theCrusaderKingdom of Jerusalem.
TheKing's Highway was a trade route of vital importance to the ancient Near East. It began in Egypt and stretched across the Sinai Peninsula to Aqaba. From there it turned northward across Transjordan, leading to Damascus and the Euphrates River. During theRoman period the road was calledVia Regia (Orient). EmperorTrajan rebuilt and renamed itVia Traiana Nova (viz.Via Traiana Roma), under which name it served as a military and trade road along the fortifiedLimes Arabicus.
TheIncense Route comprised a network of major ancient land and sea trading routes linking the Mediterranean world with Eastern and Southern sources of incense, spices and other luxury goods, stretching from Mediterranean ports across theLevant andEgypt through Northeastern Africa andArabia toIndia and beyond. The incense land trade from South Arabia to theMediterranean flourished between roughly the 7th century BCE to the 2nd century CE.
Though not essentially connected to a trade-route, Transjordan maintained its relative importance once it gained a status of independence from Ottoman Rule in the 1920s due to its close geographical and historical connection to Damascus.[26]
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Damascus' history extends well back before the Aramaean occupation. It is first attested as one of the cities and kingdoms which fought against and were defeated by the pharaoh Tuthmosis III at the battle of Megiddo during Tuthmosis' first Asiatic campaign in 1479 (ANET 234-8). Henceforth, it appears in Late Bronze Age texts as the centre of a region called Aba/Apa/Apina/Upi/Upu [Apu]. From Tuthmosis' conquest onwards, for the remainder of the Late Bronze Age, this region remained under Egyptian sovereignty, though for a short time after the battle of Qadesh, fought in 1274 by the pharaoh Ramesses 11 against the Hittite king Muwatalli II, it came under Hittite control. After the Hittite withdrawal, Damascus and its surrounding region marked part of Egypt's northern frontier with the Hittites.
Decapolis was so called from its ten Cities enumerated by Pliny (lib. 5. 18.) And with them he reckons up among others, the Tetrarchy of Abila in the same Decapolis : Which demonstrates theAbila Decapolis andAbila Lysaniæ to be the same Place. And tho'it cannot be denied, but that some ofPliny's ten Cities are not far distant from that nearJordan ; yet it doth not appear that ever this other had the Title of aTetrarchy. Here it is to be observed, that whatPliny callsDecapolis,Ptolemy makes hisCœle-Syria ; and theCœle-Syria ofPliny, is that Part ofSyria aboutAleppo, formerly call'dChalcidene,Cyrrhistice, &c.(Image ofp. 175 &p. 176 at Google Books)
[Ptolemy] describes the Peraea by a periphrasis as the eastern side of Jordan which may imply that the name [Peraea] was no longer in vogue.(Image ofp. 533 at Google Books)
Ptolemy'sGeographica provided a great compendium of knowledge in terms of the placements of cities and lands in the ancient world, information that would form the basis of medieval cartography, resulting in a standard Ptolemaic map of Asia, including Palestine. The information about Judaea appears in Book 5, wherepars Asphatitem lacum are mentioned as well as the main cities. In the region east of the Jordan, there are sites that are not all easy to determine: Cosmas, Libias, Callirhoe, Gazorus, Epicaeros (Ptolemy, Geogr. 5: 15: 6).
Ptolemy's divisions of Palestine (v. xv) appear to follow popular lines. They are Galilee, Samaria, Judaea (with a subdivision 'across the Jordan'), and Idumaea. These divisions were also for the most part, as Josephus' survey of Palestine (Bell., III. iii. 1-5, §§ 35-57) shows, official. Josephus, however, does not recognize Idumaea, merging it in Iudaea, and definitely distinguishes Peraea from Judaea. Had Ptolemy derived his divisions from an official source, he would probably have followed this scheme, and in particular would have used the official term Peraea instead of the periphrasis 'across the Jordan'.
The problem of indicating precise ancient boundaries in Transjordan is difficult and complex and varies according to the time period under discussion. After the creation of the Roman province of Arabia in 106 A.D. Gerasa and Philadelphia were included in it. Nonetheless, Ptolemy—who was writing in the second century A.D. but did not record places by Roman provinces—described them as being in (the local geographical unit of) Coele Syria (5.14.18). Furthermore, Philadelphia continued to describe itself on its coins and in inscriptions of the second and third centuries A.D. as being a city of Coele Syria; see above, Philadelphia, n. 9. As for the boundaries of the new province, the northern frontier extended to a little beyond the north of Bostra and east; the western border ran somewhat east of the Jordan River valley and the Dead Sea but west of the city of Madaba (see M. Sartre,Trois ét., 17-75; Bowersock, ZPE5, [1970] 37-39; id.,JRS61 [1971] 236-42; and especially id..Arabia, 90-109). Gadara in Peraea is identified today with es-Salt near Tell Jadur, a place that is near the western boundary of the province of Arabia. And this region could have been described by Stephanos as being located "between Coele Syria and Arabia."
