^abNeither performed nor recognized insome tribal nations of the US. Recognized but not performed in several other tribal nations andAmerican Samoa.
^Registered foreign marriages confer all marriage rights in Israel. Domestic common-law marriages confer most rights of marriage. Domestic civil marriage recognized by some cities.
^A "declaration of family relationship" is available in several of Cambodia's communes which may be useful in matters such as housing, but is not legally binding.
^Guardianship agreements confer some limited legal benefits in China, including decisions about medical and personal care.
^Hong Kong provides inheritance, guardianship rights, and residency rights for foreign spouses of legal residents.
Same-sex marriage, also known asgay marriage, is themarriage of two people of the same legalsex. As of 2025,[update] marriage between same-sex couples is legally performed and recognized in 38 countries, with a total population of 1.5 billion people (20% of the world's population). The most recent jurisdiction to legalize same-sex marriage isThailand.
Same-sex marriage is legally recognized in a large majority of the world'sdeveloped countries; notable exceptions areItaly,Japan,South Korea and theCzech Republic.Adoption rights are not necessarily covered, though most states with same-sex marriage allow those couples to jointly adopt as other married couples can. Some countries, such asNigeria andRussia, restrict advocacy for same-sex marriage.[1] A few of these are among the 35 countries (as of 2023) that constitutionally define marriage to prevent marriage between couples of the same sex, with most of those provisions enacted in recent decades as a preventative measure. Other countries have constitutionally mandatedIslamic law, which is generally interpreted as prohibiting marriage between same-sex couples.[citation needed] In six of the former and most of the latter, homosexuality itselfis criminalized.
There are records of marriage between men dating back to thefirst century.[2]Michael McConnell and Jack Baker[3][4] are the first same sex couple in modern recorded history[5] known to obtain amarriage license,[6] have their marriage solemnized, which occurred on September 3, 1971, inMinnesota,[7] and have it legally recognized by any form of government.[8][9] The first law providing for marriage equality between same-sex and opposite-sex couples waspassed in the continental Netherlands in 2000 and took effect on 1 April 2001.[10] The application ofmarriage law equally to same-sex and opposite-sex couples has varied by jurisdiction, and has come about through legislative change to marriage law, court rulings based on constitutional guarantees of equality, recognition that marriage of same-sex couples is allowed by existing marriage law, and by direct popular vote, such as throughreferendums andinitiatives.[11][12] The most prominent supporters of same-sex marriage are the world's major medical andscientific communities,[13][14][15]human rights andcivil rights organizations, and some progressive religious groups,[16][17][18] while its most prominent opponents are from conservative religious groups (some of which nonetheless support same-sexcivil unions providing legal protections for same-sex couples).[19][20]Polls consistently show continually rising support for the recognition of same-sex marriage in all developed democracies and in many developing countries.
Scientific studies show that the financial, psychological, and physical well-being of gay people is enhanced by marriage, and that the children of same-sex parents benefit from being raised by married same-sex couples within a marital union that is recognized by law and supported by societal institutions. At the same time, no harm is done to the institution of marriage among heterosexuals.[21] Social science research indicates that the exclusion of same-sex couples from marriage stigmatizes and invites public discrimination against gay and lesbian people, with research repudiating the notion that either civilization or viable social orders depend upon restricting marriage to heterosexuals.[22][23][24] Same-sex marriage can provide those in committed same-sex relationships with relevant government services and make financial demands on them comparable to that required of those in opposite-sex marriages, and also gives them legal protections such as inheritance and hospital visitation rights.[25] Opposition is often based on religious teachings, such as the view that marriage is meant to be between men and women, and that procreation is the natural goal of marriage.[26][20] Other forms of opposition are based on claims such as that homosexuality is unnatural and abnormal, that the recognition of same-sex unions will promote homosexuality in society, and that children are better off when raised by opposite-sex couples. These claims are refuted byscientific studies, which show that homosexuality is a natural and normal variation in human sexuality, thatsexual orientation is not a choice, and that children of same-sex couples fare just as well as the children of opposite-sex couples.[13]
Terminology
Alternative terms
Two men marry, surrounded by wedding party, inNew Orleans, United States on 11 November 2017
Some proponents of the legal recognition of same-sex marriage—such asMarriage Equality USA (founded in 1998),Freedom to Marry (founded in 2003),Canadians for Equal Marriage, andMarriage for All Japan - used the termsmarriage equality andequal marriage to signal that their goal was for same-sex marriage to be recognized on equal ground with opposite-sex marriage.[27][28][29][30][31][32] TheAssociated Press recommends the use ofsame-sex marriage overgay marriage.[33] In deciding whether to use the termgay marriage, it may also be noted that not everyone in a same-sex marriage is gay – for example, some are bisexual – and therefore using the termgay marriage is sometimes considered erasure of such people.[34][35]
Use of the termmarriage
Anthropologists have struggled to determine a definition ofmarriage that absorbs commonalities of thesocial construct across cultures around the world.[36][37] Many proposed definitions have been criticized for failing to recognize the existence of same-sex marriage in some cultures, including those of more than 30African peoples, such as theKikuyu andNuer.[37][38][39]
With several countries revising their marriage laws to recognize same-sex couples in the 21st century, all major English dictionaries have revised their definition of the word marriage to either drop gender specifications or supplement them with secondary definitions to include gender-neutral language or explicit recognition of same-sex unions.[40][41] TheOxford English Dictionary has recognized same-sex marriage since 2000.[42]
A reference to marriage between same-sex couples appears in theSifra, which was written in the 3rd century CE. TheBook of Leviticus prohibited homosexual relations, and the Hebrews were warned not to "follow the acts of the land of Egypt or the acts of the land of Canaan" (Lev. 18:22, 20:13). The Sifra clarifies what these ambiguous "acts" were, and that they included marriage between same-sex couples: "A man would marry a man and a woman a woman, a man would marry a woman and her daughter, and a woman would be married to two men."[43]
A few scholars believe that in the earlyRoman Empire some male couples were celebratingtraditional marriage rites in the presence of friends. Male–male weddings are reported by sources that mock them; the feelings of the participants are not recorded.[44] Various ancient sources state that the emperorNero celebrated two public weddings with males, once taking the role of the bride (with afreedmanPythagoras), and once the groom (withSporus); there may have been a third in which he was the bride.[45] In the early 3rd century AD, the emperorElagabalus is reported to have been the bride in a wedding to his male partner. Other mature men at his court had husbands, or said they had husbands in imitation of the emperor.[46]Roman law did not recognize marriage between males, but one of the grounds for disapproval expressed in Juvenal's satire is that celebrating the rites would lead to expectations for such marriages to be registered officially.[47] As the empire was becoming Christianized in the 4th century, legal prohibitions against marriage between males began to appear.[47]
Michael McConnell and Jack Baker[3][4] are the first same sex couple in modern recorded history[5] known to obtain amarriage license,[6] have their marriage solemnized, which occurred on September 3, 1971, inMinnesota,[7] and have it legally recognized by any form of government.[8][9] Historians variously trace the beginning of the modern movement in support of same-sex marriage to anywhere from around the 1980s to the 1990s. During the 1980s in theUnited States, theAIDS epidemic led to increased attention on the legal aspects of same-sex relationships.[48]Andrew Sullivan made the first case for same sex marriage in a major American journal in 1989,[49] published inThe New Republic.[50]
In 1989, Denmark became the first country to legally recognize a relationship for same-sex couples, establishingregistered partnerships, which gave those in same-sex relationships "most rights of married heterosexuals, but not the right to adopt or obtain joint custody of a child".[51] In 2001, thecontinental Netherlands became the first country to broaden marriage laws to include same-sex couples.[10][52] Since then, same-sex marriage has been established by law in 38 other countries, including most of theAmericas andWestern Europe. Yet its spread has been uneven —South Africa is the only country inAfrica to take the step;Taiwan andThailand are the only ones inAsia;New Zealand andAustralia are the only ones inOceania;Slovenia andEstonia are the only ones in post-communistCentral and Eastern Europe.[53][54][55]
The summary table below lists in chronological order the sovereign states (theUnited Nations member states andTaiwan) that have legalized same-sex marriage. As of 2025, 38 states have legalized in some capacity.[56]
Dates are when marriages between same-sex couples began to be officially certified, or when local laws were passed if marriages were already legal under higher authority.
On 12 March 2015, theEuropean Parliament passed a non-binding resolution encouraging EU institutions and member states to "[reflect] on the recognition of same-sex marriage or same-sex civil union as a political, social and human and civil rights issue".[73][74]
In response to the international spread of same-sex marriage, a number of countries have enacted preventativeconstitutional bans, with the most recent beingMali in 2023, andGabon in 2024. In other countries, such restrictions and limitations are effected through legislation. Even before same-sex marriage was first legislated, some countries had constitutions that specified that marriage was between a man and a woman.
Same-sex marriage banned by constitutionally mandated religious law
No constitutional ban
International court rulings
European Court of Human Rights
In 2010, theEuropean Court of Human Rights (ECHR) ruled inSchalk and Kopf v Austria, a case involving an Austrian same-sex couple who were denied the right to marry.[75] The court found, by a vote of 4 to 3, that their human rights had not been violated.[76] The court further stated that same-sex unions are not protected under art. 12 of ECHR ("Right to marry"), which exclusively protects the right to marry of opposite-sex couples (without regard if the sex of the partners is the result of birth or of sex change), but they are protected under art. 8 of ECHR ("Right to respect for private and family life") and art. 14 ("Prohibition of discrimination").[77]
Article 12 of the European Convention on Human Rights states that: "Men and women of marriageable age have the right to marry and to found a family, according to the national laws governing the exercise of this right",[78] not limiting marriage to those in a heterosexual relationship. However, the ECHR stated inSchalk and Kopf v Austria that this provision was intended to limit marriage to heterosexual relationships, as it used the term "men and women" instead of "everyone".[75] Nevertheless, the court accepted and is considering cases concerning same-sex marriage recognition, e.g.Andersen v Poland.[79] In 2021, the court ruled inFedotova and Others v. Russia—followed by later judgements concerning other member states—that countries must provide some sort of legal recognition to same-sex couples, although not necessarily marriage.[80]
On 5 June 2018, theEuropean Court of Justice ruled, in a case fromRomania, that, under the specific conditions of the couple in question, married same-sex couples have the same residency rights as other married couples in an EU country, even if that country does not permit or recognize same-sex marriage.[81][82] However, the ruling was not implemented in Romania and on 14 September 2021 theEuropean Parliament passed a resolution calling on theEuropean Commission to ensure that the ruling is respected across the EU.[83][84]
Inter-American Court of Human Rights
Alexandra Chávez and Michelle Avilés, the first same-sex couple to marry in Ecuador
On 8 January 2018, theInter-American Court of Human Rights (IACHR) issued an advisory opinion that states party to the American Convention on Human Rights should grant same-sex couples accession to all existing domestic legal systems of family registration, including marriage, along with all rights that derive from marriage. The Court recommended that governments issue temporary decrees recognizing same-sex marriage until new legislation is brought in. They also said that it was inadmissible and discriminatory for a separate legal provision to be established (such ascivil unions) instead of same-sex marriage.[85]
Many advocates, such as this November 2008 protester at a demonstration inNew York City againstCalifornia Proposition 8, reject the notion ofcivil unions, describing them as inferior to the legal recognition of same-sex marriage.[86]
Civil union,civil partnership,domestic partnership,registered partnership, unregistered partnership, and unregistered cohabitation statuses offer varying legal benefits of marriage. As of 13 April 2025, countries that have an alternative form of legal recognition other than marriage on a national level are:Bolivia,Croatia,Cyprus, theCzech Republic,Hungary,Italy,Latvia,Monaco,Montenegro andSan Marino.[87][88] Same-sex marriage performed remotely or abroad is recognized with full marital rights byIsrael.Poland offers more limited rights. Additionally, various cities and counties inCambodia andJapan offer same-sex couples varying levels of benefits, which include hospital visitation rights and others.
Female same-sex marriage is practiced among theGikuyu,Nandi,Kamba,Kipsigis, and to a lesser extent neighboring peoples. About 5–10% of women are in such marriages. However, this is not seen as homosexual, but is instead a way for families without sons to keep their inheritance within the family.[95]
Among theIgbo people and probably other peoples in the south of the country, there are circumstances where a marriage between women is considered appropriate, such as when a woman has no child and her husband dies, and she takes a wife to perpetuate her inheritance and family lineage.[96]
The results of more than a century of anthropological research on households, kinship relationships, and families, across cultures and through time, provide no support whatsoever for the view that either civilization or viable social orders depend upon marriage as an exclusively heterosexual institution. Rather, anthropological research supports the conclusion that a vast array of family types, including families built upon same-sex partnerships, can contribute to stable and humane societies.[24]
The overall socio-economic and health effects of legal access to same-sex marriage around the world have been summarized by Badgett and co-authors.[98] The review found that sexual minority individuals took-up legal marriage when it became available to them (but at lower rates than different-sex couples). There is instead no evidence that same-sex marriage legalization affected different-sex marriages. On the health side, same-sex marriage legalization increased health insurance coverage for individuals in same-sex couples (in the US), and it led to improvements in sexual health among men who have sex with men, while there is mixed evidence on mental health effects among sexual minorities. In addition, the study found mixed evidence on a range of downstream social outcomes such as attitudes toward LGBTQ+ people and employment choices of sexual minorities.
Health
As of 2006[update], the data of current psychological and other social science studies on same-sex marriage in comparison to mixed-sex marriage indicate that same-sex and mixed-sex relationships do not differ in their essential psychosocial dimensions; that a parent's sexual orientation is unrelated to their ability to provide a healthy and nurturing family environment; and that marriage bestows substantial psychological, social, and health benefits. Same-sex parents and carers and their children are likely to benefit in numerous ways from legal recognition of their families, and providing such recognition through marriage will bestow greater benefit than civil unions or domestic partnerships.[99][100][needs update] Studies in the United States have correlated legalization of same-sex marriage to lower rates of HIV infection,[101][102] psychiatric disorders,[103][104] andsuicide rate in the LGBT population.[105][106]
While few societies have recognized same-sex unions as marriages,[needs update] thehistorical and anthropological record reveals a large range of attitudes towards same-sex unions ranging from praise, through full acceptance and integration, sympathetic toleration, indifference, prohibition and discrimination, to persecution and physical annihilation.[citation needed] Opponents of same-sex marriages have argued that same-sex marriage, while doing good for the couples that participate in them and the children they are raising,[107] undermines a right of children to be raised by their biological mother and father.[108] Some supporters of same-sex marriages take the view that the government should have no role in regulating personal relationships,[109] while others argue that same-sex marriages would provide social benefits to same-sex couples.[l] The debate regarding same-sex marriages includes debate based upon social viewpoints as well as debate based on majority rules, religious convictions, economic arguments, health-related concerns, and a variety of other issues.[citation needed]
Scientific literature indicates that parents' financial, psychological and physical well-being is enhanced by marriage and that children benefit from being raised by two parents within a legally recognized union (either a mixed-sex or same-sex union). As a result, professional scientific associations have argued for same-sex marriage to be legally recognized as it will be beneficial to the children of same-sex parents or carers.[14][15][110][111][112]
Scientific research has been generally consistent in showing that lesbian and gay parents are as fit and capable as heterosexual parents, and their children are as psychologically healthy and well-adjusted as children reared by heterosexual parents.[15][112][113][114] According to scientific literature reviews, there is no evidence to the contrary.[99][115][116][117][needs update]
Compared to heterosexual couples, same-sex couples have a greater need foradoption orassisted reproductive technology to become parents. Lesbian couples often useartificial insemination to achieve pregnancy, andreciprocal in vitro fertilization (where one woman provides the egg and the other gestates the child) is becoming more popular in the 2020s, although many couples cannot afford it.Surrogacy is an option for wealthier gay male couples, but the cost is prohibitive. Other same-sex couples adopt children or raise the children from earlier opposite-sex relationships.[118][119]
Legal status of adoption by same-sex couples around the world:
Joint adoption allowed
Second-parent (stepchild) adoption allowed
No laws allowing adoption by same-sex couples and no same-sex marriage
Same-sex marriage but adoption by married same-sex couples not allowed
All states that allow same-sex marriage also allow the jointadoption of children by those couples with the exception of Ecuador and a third of states in Mexico, though such restrictions have been ruled unconstitutional in Mexico. In addition, Bolivia, Croatia and Israel, which do not recognize same-sex marriage, nonetheless permit joint adoption by same-sex couples. Some additional states do not recognize same-sex marriage but allow stepchild adoption by couples in civil unions, namely the Czech Republic and San Marino.[citation needed]
The legal status of same-sex marriage may have implications for the marriages of couples in which one or both parties aretransgender, depending on how sex is defined within a jurisdiction. Transgender andintersex individuals may be prohibited from marrying partners of the "opposite" sex or permitted to marry partners of the "same" sex due to legal distinctions.[citation needed] In any legal jurisdiction where marriages are defined without distinction of a requirement of a male and female, these complications do not occur. In addition, some legal jurisdictions recognize a legal and official change of gender, which would allow a transgender male or female to be legally married in accordance with an adopted gender identity.[120]
In the United Kingdom, theGender Recognition Act 2004 allows a person who has lived in their chosen gender for at least two years to receive a gender recognition certificate officially recognizing their new gender. Because in the United Kingdom marriages were until recently only for mixed-sex couples and civil partnerships are only for same-sex couples, a person had to dissolve their civil partnership before obtaining a gender recognition certificate[citation needed], and the same was formerly true for marriages in England and Wales, and still is in other territories. Such people are then free to enter or re-enter civil partnerships or marriages in accordance with their newly recognized gender identity. In Austria, a similar provision requiring transsexual people to divorce before having theirlegal sex marker corrected was found to be unconstitutional in 2006.[121] In Quebec, prior to the legalization of same-sex marriage, only unmarried people could apply for legal change of gender. With the advent of same-sex marriage, this restriction was dropped. A similar provision including sterilization also existed in Sweden, but was phased out in 2013.[122] In the United States, transgender and intersex marriages was subject to legal complications.[123] As definitions and enforcement of marriage are defined by the states, these complications vary from state to state,[124] as some of them prohibit legal changes of gender.[125]
In the United States before the case ofObergefell v. Hodges, couples in same-sex marriages could only obtain a divorce in jurisdictions that recognized same-sex marriages, with some exceptions.[126]
There are differing positions regarding the manner in which same-sex marriage has been introduced into democratic jurisdictions. A "majority rules" position holds that same-sex marriage is valid, or void and illegal, based upon whether it has been accepted by a simple majority of voters or of their elected representatives.[127]
In contrast, acivil rights view holds that the institution can be validly created through the ruling of an impartial judiciary carefully examining the questioning and finding that the right to marry regardless of the gender of the participants is guaranteed under the civil rights laws of the jurisdiction.[16]
Public opinion of same-sex marriage. Fraction in favor:[128]
5⁄6+
2⁄3+
1⁄2+
1⁄3+
1⁄6+
<1⁄6
no polls
Numerous polls and studies on the issue have been conducted. A trend of increasing support for same-sex marriage has been revealed across many countries of the world, often driven in large part by a generational difference in support. Polling that was conducted in developed democracies in this century shows a majority of people in support of same-sex marriage. Support for same-sex marriage has increased across every age group, political ideology, religion, gender, race and region of various developed countries in the world.[129][130][131][132][133][needs update]
Various detailed polls and studies on same-sex marriage that were conducted in several countries show that support for same-sex marriage significantly increases with higher levels of education and is also significantly stronger among younger generations, with a clear trend of continually increasing support.[134]
Greater support with youth
Pew Research polling results from 32 countries found 21 with statistically higher support for same-sex marriage among those under 35 than among those over 35 in 2022–2023. Countries with the greatest absolute difference are placed to the left in the following chart. Countries without a significant generational difference are placed to the right.[134]
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Taiw
Mex
Sing
ROK
HK
Gre
Pol
Viet
Thai
Jpn
Cam
Braz
USA
Arg
Ital
Oz
S. Af.
Sri Lanka
Keny
Swed
Malay
Neth
Spa
Fran
Germ
Cana
UK
India
Isra
Hung
Indo
Nigeria
over 35
additional support from those under 35
A 2016 survey by theVarkey Foundation found similarly high support of same-sex marriage (63%) among 18–21-year-olds in an online survey of 18 countries around the world.[135][136][137]
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Germ
Cana
Oz
UK
NZ
Fran
Ital
Arg
USA
Braz
Chin
S. Af.
India
Jpn
Isra
ROK
Turk
Nigeria
(The sampling error is approx. 4% for Nigeria and 3% for the other countries. Because of legal constraints, the question on same-sex marriage was not asked in the survey countries of Russia and Indonesia.)
Opinion polls for same-sex marriage by country
Same-sex marriage performed nationwide
Same-sex marriage performed in some parts of the country
Civil unions or registered partnerships nationwide
^Same-sex marriage is performed and recognized by law in continental Australia and in the non-self-governing possessions ofNorfolk Island,Christmas Island and theCocos Islands, which follow Australian law.
^Same-sex marriage is performed and recognized throughout Ecuador, but such couples are not considered married for purposes of adoption and may not adopt children.
^Same-sex marriage is performed and recognized by law in metropolitan France and in allFrench overseas regions and possessions, which follow a single legal code.
^Same-sex marriage is available in all jurisdictions, though the process is not everywhere as straightforward as it is for opposite-sex marriage and does not always include adoption rights.
^Same-sex marriage is performed and recognized by law in allfifty states of the US and in theDistrict of Columbia, in all overseas territories exceptAmerican Samoa (recognition only), and in alltribal nations that do not have their own marriage laws, as well as in most nations that do. The largest of the dozen or so tribal nations that do not perform or recognize same-sex marriage areNavajo,Gila River and perhapsYakama, and the largest (or perhaps only) among the shared-sovereignty Oklahoma Tribal Statistical Areas are theCreek,Citizen Potawatomi andSeminole. These polities ban same-sex marriage and do not recognize marriages from other jurisdictions, though members may still marry under state law and be accorded all the rights of marriage under state and federal law.
^Nepal is waiting for a final decision by its supreme court, but meanwhile local governments are ordered to temporarily register same-sex marriages in a separate record. In April 2024 the National ID and Civil Registration Department issued a circular to local governments that they license such marriages. However, simply obtaining marriage certificates does not grant same-sex couples the legal rights of marriage. Some district courts and local government offices are refusing to license same-sex marriages. Comprehensive statistics remain unavailable as these marriages are not being registered into the Department of National ID and Civil Registration's online system.[64][65][66][67][68]
^Legally available in the Arizona municipalities of Bisbee, Clarkdale, Cottonwood, Jerome, Sedona and Tucson.
^Dale Carpenter is a prominent spokesman for this view. For a better understanding of this view, see Carpenter's writings at"Dale Carpenter".Independent Gay Forum. Archived fromthe original on 17 November 2006. Retrieved31 October 2006.
^abBecause some polls do not report 'neither', those that do are listed with simple yes/no percentages in parentheses, so their figures can be compared.
^Comprises: Neutral; Don't know; No answer; Other; Refused.
^abcdefghijk[+ more urban/educated than representative]
Michael McConnell (75) and husband Jack Baker (75) talk with friend Lisa Vecoli (55) about having the first same-sex marriage legally recognized by a U.S. civil government in 1971, why they chose to get married, and what the response to their marriage was like.
JB describes the decades-long (46-year) process from the denial of their marriage license in 1971 until a second request that same year inBlue Earth County,Minnesota, was "declared to be in all respects valid" by Order of Gregory J. Anderson, Judge of District Court.
^abNewsletter, "Hidden Treasures from the Stacks",The National Archives at Kansas City, p. 6 (September 2013).
^ab"The September 3, 1971 marriage of James Michael McConnell and Pat Lyn McConnell, a/k/a Richard John Baker, has never been dissolved or annulled by judicial decree and no grounds currently exist on which to invalidate the marriage."
Sources: CONCLUSIONS OF LAW by Assistant Chief Judge Gregory Anderson, Fifth Judicial District, (page 4);
Copy:Minnesota Judicial Branch, File Number 07-CV-16-4559, "Findings of Fact, Conclusions of Law and Order for Partial Summary Judgment" from Blue Earth County District Court in re James Michael McConnell et al. v. Blue Earth County et al. (September 18, 2018);
^Pratt, Patricia (29 May 2012)."Albany area real estate and the Marriage Equality Act".Albany Examiner. Retrieved25 December 2012.On July 24, 2011 the Marriage Equality Act became a law in New York State forever changing the state's legal view of what a married couple is.
^Ring, Trudy (20 December 2012)."Newt Gingrich: Marriage Equality Inevitable, OK".The Advocate. Los Angeles.Archived from the original on 23 December 2012. Retrieved25 December 2012.He [Newt Gingrich] noted to HuffPo that he not only has a lesbian half-sister, LGBT rights activistCandace Gingrich, but has gay friends who've gotten married in Iowa, where their unions are legal. Public opinion has shifted in favor of marriage equality, he said, and the Republican Party could end up on the wrong side of history if it continues to go against the tide.
^abGough, Kathleen E. (January–June 1959). "The Nayars and the Definition of Marriage".The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland.89 (1):23–34.doi:10.2307/2844434.JSTOR2844434.
^Martial 1.24 and 12.42; Juvenal 2.117–42. Williams,Roman Homosexuality, pp. 28, 280; Karen K. Hersh,The Roman Wedding: Ritual and Meaning in Antiquity (Cambridge University Press, 2010), p. 36;Caroline Vout,Power and Eroticism in Imperial Rome (Cambridge University Press, 2007), pp. 151ff.
^Palazzo, Nausica (April 2023). "Fedotova and Others v. Russia : Dawn of a new era for European LGBTQ families?".Maastricht Journal of European and Comparative Law.30 (2):216–228.doi:10.1177/1023263X231195455.S2CID261655476.
^abPawelski, J.G.; Perrin, E.C.; Foy, J.M.; Allen, C.E.; Crawford, J.E.; Del Monte, M.; Kaufman, M.; Klein, J.D.; Smith, K.; Springer, S.; Tanner, J.L.; Vickers, D.L. (2006). "The Effects of Marriage, Civil Union, and Domestic Partnership Laws on the Health and Well-being of Children".Pediatrics.118 (1):349–64.doi:10.1542/peds.2006-1279.PMID16818585.S2CID219194821.
^Herek, Gregory M. "Legal recognition of same-sex relationships in the United States: A social science perspective."American Psychologist, Vol 61(6), September 2006, pp. 607–21.
^Leal, Daniela; Gato, Jorge; Coimbra, Susana; Freitas, Daniela; Tasker, Fiona (December 2021). "Social Support in the Transition to Parenthood Among Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Persons: A Systematic Review".Sexuality Research and Social Policy.18 (4):1165–1179.doi:10.1007/s13178-020-00517-y.hdl:10216/132451.
^Bockting, Walter, Autumn Benner, and Eli Coleman. "Gay and Bisexual Identity Development Among Female-to-Male Transsexuals in North America: Emergence of a Transgender Sexuality."Archives of Sexual Behavior 38.5 (October 2009): 688–701. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. 29 September 2009
^Deborah, Anthony (Spring 2012). "CAUGHT IN THE MIDDLE: TRANSSEXUAL MARRIAGE AND THE DISCONNECT BETWEEN SEX AND LEGAL SEX".Texas Journal of Women & the Law.21 (2).
^Schwartz, John (18 September 2009)."U.S. Defends Marriage Law".The New York Times.Archived from the original on 14 July 2014. Retrieved29 September 2009.
^Matthew S. Coleman (16 September 2015)."Obergefell v. Hodges". Einhorn Harris.Archived from the original on 24 December 2015. Retrieved8 November 2015.
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Greenwich, Alex; Robinson, Shirleene (2018).Yes Yes Yes: Australia's Journey to Marriage Equality. Australia: NewSouth Books.ISBN9781742235998.
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Rugg, Sally (2019).How Powerful We Are : Behind the scenes with one of Australia's leading activists. Australia: Hachette Australia.ISBN9780733642227.OCLC1103918151.
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