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| Dissociative trance | |
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| TheOracle at Delphi was famous for her divinatory trances throughout the ancient Mediterranean world. Oil painting,John Collier, 1891 | |
| Specialty | Psychiatry |
Trance is a state of semi-consciousness in which a person is not self-aware and is either altogether unresponsive to external stimuli (but nevertheless capable of pursuing and realizing an aim) or is selectively responsive in following the directions of the person (if any) who has induced the trance. Trance states may occur involuntarily and unbidden.
The termtrance may be associated withhypnosis,spirit possession,magic,flow,prayer,psychedelic drugs, andaltered states of consciousness.
Trance in its modern meaning comes from an earlier meaning of "a dazed, half-conscious or insensible condition or state of fear", via theOld Frenchtranse "fear of evil", from theLatintransīre "to cross", "pass over".[1]
Wier, in his 1995 book,Trance: from magic to technology, defines a simple trance (p. 58) as a state of mind being caused by cognitive loops where a cognitive object (a thought, an image, a sound, an intentional action) repeats long enough to result in various sets of disabled cognitive functions. Wier represents all trances (which include sleep and watching television) as taking place on a dissociated trance plane where at least some cognitive functions such as volition are disabled; as is seen in what is typically termed a 'hypnotic trance'.[2] With this definition, meditation, hypnosis, addictions and charisma are seen as being trance states. In Wier's 2007 book,The Way of Trance, he elaborates on these forms, adds ecstasy as an additional form and discusses the ethical implications of his model, including magic and government use which he terms "trance abuse".
John Horgan inRational Mysticism (2003) explores the neurological mechanisms and psychological implications of trances and othermystical manifestations. Horgan incorporates literature and case-studies from a number of disciplines in this work:chemistry,physics,psychology,radiology, andtheology.
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Trance conditions include all the different states ofmind,emotions,moods, anddaydreams that human beings experience. All activities which engage a human involve the filtering of information coming into sense modalities, and this influences brain functioning and consciousness. Therefore, trance may be understood as a way for the mind to change the way it filters information in order to provide more efficient use of the mind's resources.
Trance states may also be accessed or induced by variousmodalities and are considered by some people to be a way of accessing theunconscious mind for the purposes ofrelaxation,healing,intuition, andinspiration. There is an extensive documented history of trance as evidenced by the case-studies of anthropologists and ethnologists and associated and derivative disciplines. Principles of trance are being explored and documented as are methods of trance induction. Mind functioning during trance and benefits of trance states are being explored by medical and scientific inquiry.[3][4] Many traditions and rituals employ trance. Trance also has a function in religion and mystical experience.
Castillo (1995) states that: "Trance phenomena result from the behavior of intense focusing of attention, which is the key psychological mechanism of trance induction. Adaptive responses, including institutionalized forms of trance, are 'tuned' into neural networks in the brain and depend to a large extent on the characteristics of culture. Culture-specific organizations exist in the structure of individual neurons and in the organizational formation of neural networks."[5]
Hoffman (1998: p. 9) states that: "Trance is still conventionally defined as a state of reducedconsciousness, or a somnolent state. However, the more recentanthropological definition, linking it to 'altered states of consciousness' (Charles Tart), is becoming increasingly accepted."[6]
Hoffman (1998, p. 9) asserts that: "...the trance state should be discussed in the plural, because there is more than one altered state of consciousness significantly different from everyday consciousness."[6]
As the mystical experience ofmystics generally entails direct connection, communication and communion with thedivine; trance and cognate experience are endemic. (seeYoga,Sufism,Shaman,Umbanda,Crazy Horse, etc.)
As shown byJonathan Garb and Stesley,[7] trance techniques also played a role inLurianic Kabbalah, the mystical life of the circle ofMoshe Hayyim Luzzatto andHasidism.
Joseph Jordania proposed the term "battle trance" in 2011 for a mental state whencombatants do not feelfear andpain, and they lose theirindividual identity and acquire acollective identity.[8]
ManyChristian mystics are documented as having experiences that may be considered as cognate with trance, such as:Hildegard of Bingen,John of the Cross,Meister Eckhart, Saint Theresa (as seen in the Bernini sculpture), andFrancis of Assisi.
Taves (1999) charts the synonymic language of trance in the American Christian traditions:power orpresence orindwelling of God, or Christ, or the Spirit, or spirits. Typical expressions include "the indwelling of the Spirit" (Jonathan Edwards), "the witness of the Spirit" (John Wesley), "the power of God" (early AmericanMethodists), being "filled with the Spirit of the Lord" (earlyAdventists; seecharismatic Adventism), "communing with spirits" (Spiritualists), "the Christ within" (New Thought), "streams of holy fire and power" (Methodistholiness), "a religion of the Spirit and Power" (theEmmanuel Movement), and "the baptism of the Holy Spirit" (earlyPentecostals). (Taves, 1999: 3)
Taves (1999) well-referenced book on trance charts the experience of Anglo-American Protestants and those who left the Protestant movement beginning with the transatlantic awakening in the early 18th century and ending with the rise of thepsychology of religion and the birth ofPentecostalism in the early 20th century. This book focuses on a class of seemingly involuntary acts alternately explained inreligious andsecular terminology. These involuntary experiences include uncontrolled bodily movements (fits, bodily exercises, falling as dead,catalepsy,convulsions,shaking); spontaneous vocalizations (crying out, shouting,speaking in tongues); unusual sensory experiences (trances,visions, voices,clairvoyance,out-of-body experiences); and alterations ofconsciousness and/ormemory (dreams,somnium,somnambulism, mesmeric trance, mediumistic trance,hypnosis,possession, alternating personality) (Taves, 1999: 3).
Trance-like states are often interpreted asreligious ecstasy orvisions and can be deliberately induced using a variety of techniques, includingprayer,religious rituals,meditation,pranayama (breathwork or breathing exercises),physical exercise,sexual intercourse,music,dancing,sweating (e.g.sweat lodge),fasting,thirsting, and the consumption ofpsychotropic drugs such ascannabis.Sensory modality is thechannel orconduit for the induction of the trance. Sometimes an ecstatic experience takes place in occasion of contact with something or somebody perceived as extremelybeautiful orholy. It may also happen without any known reason. The particular technique that an individual uses to induce ecstasy is usually one that is associated with that individual's particularreligious andculturaltraditions. As a result, an ecstatic experience is usually interpreted within the context of a particular individual's religious and cultural traditions. These interpretations often include statements about contact withsupernatural orspiritual beings, about receiving new information as arevelation, also religion-related explanations of subsequent change ofvalues,attitudes, andbehavior (e.g. in case ofreligious conversion).
Benevolent, neutral and malevolent trances may be induced (intentionally, spontaneously and/or accidentally) by different methods:
Charles Tart provides a useful working definition of auditory driving. It is the induction of trance through the sense of hearing. Auditory driving works through a process known asentrainment.[9][10]
The usage of repetitiverhythms to induce trance states is an ancient phenomenon. Throughout the world,shamanistic practitioners have been employing this method formillennia.Anthropologists and other researchers have documented the similarity of shamanistic auditory drivingrituals among different cultures.
Andrew Neher (1962) wrote about the importance of drumming in trance inA Physiological Explanation of Unusual Behavior in Ceremonies Involving Drums. Neher wrote that "there has been little investigation in the unusual behavior observed inceremonies in different parts of the world, which involve drums. This behavior is often described as a trance state in which the individual experiences unusual perceptions orhallucinations. In the extreme case, twitching of the body and a generalizedconvulsion are reported. These physiological and psychological states, and the importance of the use of drums have remained a mystery."[11]
Neher's (1962) article which is considered by modern scholars who study trance to have made very important connections between trance and drumming. Melinda Maxfield (1994), who received a PhD inTranspersonal Psychology from the Institute of Transpersonal Psychology in Menlo Park, is quoted as saying “It was not until the pioneering work of Andrew Neher (1961, 1962) that the acoustic stimulation in connection with the drum was tested.”[12][13]
Theta brainwaves are referred to by Neher (1962, 154) as “theta rhythms” which are theta brainwaves in the context of music and drumming. Neher found that individual differences in basic brain wave frequency is between 8 to 13 cycles per second during drum rhythm. The importance of theta brainwaves was proved by later studies done by Maxfield (1994) and Mateusz Konopacki (2018). The difference between alpha, beta, theta, and delta waves is the range of hertz that each falls between. Alpha and theta brainwaves are most associated with drumming and tested by Maxfield (1994) and Konopacki (2018). Both of them found that theta brainwaves are increased with drumming while alpha brainwaves decrease during drumming.
Maxfield’s (1994) articleThe journey of the drum discusses the use of drumming and acoustic stimulation. The auditory tracts pass directly into thereticular activating system (RAS) of the brain stem. The RAS is a massive "nerve net" and functions to coordinate sensory input and motor tone and to alert the cortex to incoming information. The sound traveling on these pathways is capable of activating an entire brain. Maxfield (1994) proposes that “strong, repetitive neuronal firing in the auditory pathways and ultimately in the cerebral cortex, such as would be experienced from drums, could theoretically compete successfully for cognitive awareness. Other sensory stimuli from ordinary reality, including pain, could thus be gated or filtered out. The mind would then be free to expand into other realms.”
Maxfield (1994) conducted an experiment with 12 participants to test the use of drumming in indigenous communities and how trance is achieved through drumming. The most common experiences for the participants included:
The experiences from the 12 participants align with the experiences of the trance state. Maxfield’s (1994) experiment proved to show that drumming can and will induce a trance-like state. This proves Neher (1962) was correct to assume that trance can and has been induced from drumming. However, the use of drumming byshamans to achieve a trance state could have been impacted by other factors such as body position, substance use, andchanting. All of these factors could change the trance by either enhancing the trance or creating a different experience than by just drumming.
Maxfield (1994) said that most indigenous cultures do not separate psychological from spiritual processes. Maxfield (1994) quotesTart (1972, 21) "many primitive peoples . . . believe that almost every normal adult has the ability to go into a trance state and be possessed by a god; the adult who cannot do this is a psychological cripple." Maxfield builds upon both Tart and Neher to prove that drumming induced trance is not just an ancient practice but a modern one that can be found in small communities around the world.
Mateusz Konopacki (2018) conducted a similar experiment with 24 participants that “aimed to determine, if suggestion to experience trance state could increase the relative alpha and theta amplitude and the intensity of experienced state.” Konopacki (2018) found that experiencing a state of trance might decrease alpha frequency brainwave activity when listening to shamanic drumming. This indicates that a deeper state of relaxation occurs instead of the predicted trance state. Konopacki (2018) notes that the trance state might be induced from other characteristics of a ritual or the anticipation that oneself is going into a trance state. This could create a type ofplacebo effect which would not equate to a trance state. Konopacki’s (2018) experiment did not replicate the results of the previous studies which demonstrates that the phenomenon of trance induced by shamanic drumming is still not fully understood.[14]
Drumming can induce a trance state, however the intensity of the trance can vary with some people experiencing a mix oftemporal andspatial changes such as loss of time or movement. The difference in trance experience from drumming can be traced to the conditions of the environment of the trance. The environment is key to achieving a trance state as noted by Maxfield (1994) and Konopacki (2018) as they control the environment where the participants are entering a trance state. A controlled environment either by the one drumming or the shaman who is drumming allows for the trance to occur, rather than an environment where the drummer is dependent on outside factors for the trance state. The alpha brainwaves are not activated as much as the theta brainwaves which allows for the trance state to be achieved. The use of drumming induced trance is commonly found in smallindigenous communities.
Said simply, entrainment is the synchronization of different rhythmic cycles. Breathing and heart rate have been shown to be affected by auditory stimulus, along with brainwave activity. The ability of rhythmic sound to affect human brainwave activity, especiallytheta brainwaves, is the essence of auditory driving, and is the cause of the altered states of consciousness that it can induce.[15]
Nowack and Feltman published an article entitled "Eliciting the Photic Driving Response" which states that the EEG photic driving response is a sensitive neurophysiological measure which has been employed to assess chemical and drug effects, forms of epilepsy, neurological status of Alzheimer's patients, and physiological arousal. Photic driving also impacts upon the psychological climate of a person by producing increased visual imagery and decreased physiological and subjective arousal. In this research by Nowack and Feltman, all participants reported increased visual imagery during photic driving, as measured by their responses to an imagery questionnaire.
Dennis Wier[16] states that over two millennia agoPtolemy andApuleius found that differing rates of flickering lights affected states of awareness and sometimes induced epilepsy. Wier also asserts that it was discovered in the late 1920s that when light was shined on closed eyelids it resulted in an echoing production of brainwave frequencies. Wier also opined that in 1965 Grey employed astroboscope to project rhythmic light flashes into the eyes at a rate of 10–25 Hz (cycles per second). Grey discovered that this stimulated similar brainwave activity.
Research byThomas Budzynski,Oestrander et al., in the use of brain machines suggest thatphotic driving via thesuprachiasmatic nucleus and direct electrical stimulation and driving via other mechanisms and modalities, mayentrain processes of the brain facilitatingrapid and enhanced learning, produce deeprelaxation,euphoria, an increase increativity, andproblem solving propensity may be associated with enhanced concentration and accelerated learning. Thetheta range and the border area betweenalpha andtheta has generated considerable research interest.
Charles Tart provides a useful working definition ofkinesthetic driving. It is the induction of trance through thesense oftouch,feeling, oremotions. Kinesthetic driving works through a process known asentrainment.
Therituals practiced by someathletes in preparing for contests are dismissed assuperstition, but this is adevice ofsport psychologists to help them to attain an ecstasy-like state.Joseph Campbell had a peak experience whilstrunning.Roger Bannister on breaking the four-minute mile (Cameron, 1993: 185): "No longer conscious of my movement, I discovered a new unity with nature. I had found a new source of power and beauty, a source I never dreamt existed." Roger Bannister later became a distinguishedneurologist.
Mechanisms anddisciplines that include kinesthetic driving may include:dancing,walking meditation,yoga andasana,mudra,juggling,poi (juggling), etc.
Sufism (themystical branch ofIslam) hastheoretical andmetaphorictexts regardingecstasy as a state of connection withAllah.Sufi practicerituals (dhikr,sema) use body movement and music to achieve the state.
Divination is a cultural universal whichanthropologists have observed as being present in manyreligions andcultures in all ages up to the present day (seesibyl).[22][23] Divination may be defined as a mechanism forfortune-telling by ascertaining information by interpretation ofomens or an alleged supernatural agency. Divination often entailsritual, and is often facilitated by trance.
InTibet,oracles have played, and continue to play, an important part inreligion andgovernment. The wordoracle is used by Tibetans to refer to thespirit,deity orentity that enters those men and women who act asmedia between the natural and the spiritual realms. The media are, therefore, known askuten, which literally means, "the physical basis".
TheDalai Lama, who lives in exile in northern India, still consults an oracle known as theNechung Oracle, which is considered the official state oracle of the government of Tibet. He gives a complete description of the process of trance and possession in his bookFreedom in Exile.[24]
Convergent disciplines ofneuroanthropology,ethnomusicology,electroencephalography (EEG),neurotheology, andcognitive neuroscience, amongst others, are conducting research into the trance induction ofaltered states of consciousness resulting fromneuron entrainment with the driving of sensory modalities, for examplepolyharmonics,multiphonics, andpercussivepolyrhythms through the channel of the auditory andkinestheticmodality.[25]
Neuroanthropology andcognitive neuroscience are conducting research into the trance induction ofaltered states of consciousness (possibly engenderinghigher consciousness) resulting fromneuron firingentrainment with thesepolyharmonics andmultiphonics. Related research has been conducted into neural entraining withpercussivepolyrhythms. Thetimbre of traditional singing bowls and theirpolyrhythms andmultiphonics are considered meditative and calming, and the harmony inducing effects of thistool to potentially alter consciousness are being explored by scientists, medical professionals and therapists.[citation needed]
Scientific advancement and new technologies such as computerizedEEG,positron emission tomography, regional cerebral blood flow, and nuclear magnetic resonance imaging, are providing measurable tools to assist in understanding trance phenomena.
There are four principal brainwave states that range from high-amplitude, low-frequency delta to low-amplitude, high-frequency beta. These states range from deep dreamless sleep to a state of high arousal. These four brainwave states are common throughout humans. All levels of brainwaves exist in everyone at all times, even though one is foregrounded depending on the activity level. When a person is in an aroused state and exhibiting a beta brainwave pattern, their brain also exhibits a component of alpha, theta, and delta, even though only a trace may be present.[26]
The University of Philadelphia study on some Christians at the Freedom Valley Worship Center inGettysburg, Pennsylvania, revealed thatglossolalia-speaking (vocalizing or praying in unrecognizable form of language which is seen in members of certain Christian sects) activates areas of the brain out of voluntary control. In addition, thefrontal lobe of the brain, which monitors speech, significantly diminished in activity as the study participants spoke glossolalia.[27] Dr.Andrew B. Newberg, in analysis of his earlier studies as opposed to theMRI scans of the test subjects, stated that Buddhist monks in meditation[28] and Franciscan nuns in prayer[29] exhibited increased activity in the frontal lobe, and subsequently their behaviors, very much under voluntary control. The investigation found this particular beyond-body-control characteristic only in tongue-speakers (also seexenoglossia).
Studies have been conducted in France and Belgium on a French woman who has received extensive training in the Mongolian shamanic tradition and becomes therefore capable of self-inducing a trance state.[30][3] Quantitative EEG mapping and low resolution electromagnetic tomography show that shamanic trance involves a shift from the normally dominant left analytical to the right experiential mode of self-experience, and from the normally dominant anterior prefrontal to the posterior somatosensory mode.
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