Trabzon is a city on theBlack Sea coast of northeasternTurkey and the capital ofTrabzon Province. Historically known asTrebizond, the city was founded in 756 BC asTrapezous by colonists fromMiletus. It was added into theAchaemenid Empire byCyrus the Great and was later part of the independentKingdom of Pontus that challenged Rome until 68 BC. Thenceforth part of the Roman and later Byzantine Empire, the city was the capital of theEmpire of Trebizond, one of the successor states of the Byzantine Empire after theFourth Crusade in 1204.[2] In 1461 it came under Ottoman rule. During the early modern period[when?], Trabzon, because of the importance of its port, again became a focal point of trade to Persia and theCaucasus. Today Trabzon is the second largest city and port on the Black Sea coast of Turkey with a population of almost 300,000. The urban population of the city is 330,836 (Ortahisar), with a metropolitan population of 822,270. Trabzon has 18 districts in total.
Coin of Trapezous from the 4th century BC in theBritish Museum. The coin promotes the colonial Greek city as a 'table of plenty'.
The Turkish name of the city is Trabzon. The first recorded name of the city is the GreekTραπεζοῦς (Trapezous), referencing the table-like central hill between the Zağnos (İskeleboz) and Kuzgun streams on which it was founded (τράπεζα meant "table" inAncient Greek; note the table on the coin in the figure). InLatin, Trabzon is calledTrapezus, which is alatinization of its ancient Greek name. Both inPontic Greek andModern Greek, it is calledΤραπεζούντα (Trapezounta). InOttoman Turkish andPersian, it is written asطربزون. During Ottoman times,Tara Bozan was also used.[3][4][5][6] InLaz it is known asტამტრა (T'amt'ra) orT'rap'uzani,[7] inGeorgian it isტრაპიზონი (T'rap'izoni) and inArmenian it isՏրապիզոն (Trapizon). The 19th-century Armenian travelling priest Byjiskian called the city by other, native names, includingHurşidabat andOzinis.[8] Western geographers and writers used many spelling variations of the name throughout the Middle Ages. These versions of the name, which have incidentally been used in English literature as well, include:Trebizonde (Fr.),Trapezunt (German),Trebisonda (Sp.),Trapesunta (It.),Trapisonda,Tribisonde,Terabesoun,Trabesun,Trabuzan,Trabizond andTarabossan.
Bronze statue ofHermes, 2nd c. BC, found near Tabakhane bridge in the center of Trabzon. Displayed inTrabzon Museum.
Head and hand of a 2nd c. BC bronze statue of (possiblyAnahit as)Aphrodite, found nearKelkit to the south of Trabzon province. On display in theBritish Museum.
Before the city was founded as a Greek colony the area was dominated byColchians (west Georgian) andChaldian (Anatolian) tribes. TheHayasa, who had been in conflict with the Central-AnatolianHittites in the 14th century BC, are believed to have lived in the area south of Trabzon. Later Greek authors mentioned theMacrones and theChalybes as native peoples. One of the dominant Caucasian groups to the east were theLaz, who were part of the monarchy of theColchis, together with other relatedGeorgian peoples.[11][12][13]
The city was founded inclassical antiquity in 756 BC as Tραπεζούς (Trapezous), byMilesian traders fromSinope.[14] It was one of a number (about ten) of Milesianemporia ortrading colonies along the shores of the Black Sea. Others includedAbydos andCyzicus in theDardanelles, and nearbyKerasous. Like mostGreek colonies, the city was a small enclave of Greek life, and not an empire unto its own, in the later European sense of the word. As a colony, Trapezous initially paid tribute to Sinope, but early banking (money-changing) activity is suggested to have occurred in the city already in the 4th century BC, according to a silverdrachma coin from Trapezus in theBritish Museum, London.Cyrus the Great added the city to theAchaemenid Empire, and was possibly the first ruler to consolidate the eastern Black Sea region into a single political entity (asatrapy).
Thálatta! Thálatta! ("The Sea! The Sea!"). Trebizond was the first Greek city theTen Thousand reached on their retreat from Persia. 19th c. illustration by Herman Vogel.
Trebizond's trade partners included theMossynoeci. WhenXenophon and theTen Thousand mercenaries were fighting their way out ofPersia, the first Greek city they reached was Trebizond (Xenophon,Anabasis, 5.5.10). The city and the local Mossynoeci had become estranged from the Mossynoecian capital, to the point of civil war. Xenophon's force resolved this in the rebels' favor, and so in Trebizond's interest.
Up until the conquests ofAlexander the Great the city remained under the dominion of the Achaemenids. While the Pontus was not directly affected by the war, its cities gained independence as a result of it. Local ruling families continued to claim partial Persian heritage, and Persian culture had some lasting influence on the city; the holy springs of Mt. Minthrion to the east of the old town were devoted to the Persian-Anatolian Greek godMithra. In the 2nd century BC, the city with its natural harbours was added to theKingdom of Pontus byPharnaces I.Mithridates VI Eupator made it the home port of the Pontic fleet, in his quest to remove the Romans from Anatolia.
After the defeat of Mithridates in 66 BC, the city was first handed to theGalatians, but it was soon returned to the grandson of Mithradates, and subsequently became part of the new client Kingdom of Pontus. When the kingdom was finally annexed to theRoman province ofGalatia two centuries later, the fleet passed to new commanders, becoming theClassis Pontica. The city received the status ofcivitas libera, extending its judicial autonomy and the right to mint its own coin. Trebizond gained importance for its access to roads leading over theZigana Pass to the Armenian frontier or the upperEuphrates valley. New roads were constructed fromPersia andMesopotamia under the rule ofVespasian. In the next century, the emperorHadrian commissioned improvements to give the city a more structured harbor.[15] The emperor visited the city in the year 129 as part of his inspection of the eastern border (limes). Amithraeum now serves as a crypt for the church and monastery of Panagia Theoskepastos (Kızlar Manastırı) in nearby Kizlara, east of the citadel and south of the modern harbor.
Martyrdom of Eugenius, Candidius, Valerian, and Aquila. Work dated to 985,Vatican Library.Parts of thecity walls of Trabzon and the Eugenius Aqueduct are among the oldest remaining structures in the city.
Septimius Severus punished Trebizond for having supported his rivalPescennius Niger during theYear of the Five Emperors. In 257 the city was pillaged by theGoths, despite reportedly being defended by "10,000 above its usual garrison" and two bands of walls.[15] Trebizond was subsequently rebuilt, pillaged again, by thePersians, in 258, and then rebuilt once more. It did not soon recover. Only in the reign ofDiocletian does an inscription allude to the restoration of the city;Ammianus Marcellinus had nothing to say of Trebizond except that it was "not an obscure town."
Christianity had reached Trebizond by the third century, for during the reign of Diocletian occurred the martyrdom ofEugenius and his associates Candidius, Valerian, and Aquila.[16] Eugenius had destroyed the statue ofMithras which overlooked the city fromMount Minthrion (Boztepe), and became the patron saint of the city after his death. Early Christians sought refuge in the Pontic Mountains south of the city, where they establishedVazelon Monastery in 270 AD andSumela Monastery in 386 AD. As early as theFirst Council of Nicea, Trebizond had its own bishop.[17] Subsequently, the Bishop of Trebizond was subordinated to theMetropolitan Bishop ofPoti.[17] Then during the 9th century, Trebizond itself became the seat of the Metropolitan Bishop ofLazica.[17]
Saint Anne Church, to the east of the walled city, is the oldest church in the city, possibly dating back to the 6th or 7th century.
The 10th-century cathedral Panaghia Chrysokephalos (nowFatih Mosque), the most impressive Byzantine building in the city
By the time ofJustinian, the city served as an important base in his Persian Wars, and Miller notes that a portrait of the generalBelisarius "long adorned the church of St. Basil."[18] An inscription above the eastern gate of the city, commemorated the reconstruction of the civic walls at Justinian's expense following an earthquake.[18] At some point before the 7th century the university (Pandidakterion) of the city was reestablished with aquadrivium curriculum. The university drew students not just from theByzantine Empire, but from Armenia as well.[19][20]
The city regained importance when it became the seat of the theme ofChaldia. Trebizond also benefited when the trade route regained importance in the 8th to 10th centuries; 10th-century Muslim authors note that Trebizond was frequented by Muslim merchants, as the main source transshippingByzantine silks into eastern Muslim countries.[21] According to the 10th centuryArab geographerAbul Feda it was regarded as being largely aLazian port. The Italian maritime republics such as theRepublic of Venice and in particular theRepublic of Genoa were active in the Black Sea trade for centuries, using Trebizond as an important seaport for trading goods between Europe and Asia.[22] Some of theSilk Road caravans carrying goods from Asia stopped at the port of Trebizond, where the European merchants purchased these goods and carried them to the port cities of Europe with ships. This trade provided a source of revenue to the state in the form of custom duties, orkommerkiaroi, levied on the goods sold in Trebizond.[23] The Greeks protected the coastal and inland trade routes with a vast network of garrison forts.[24]
Following theByzantine defeat at theBattle of Manzikert in 1071, Trebizond came underSeljuk rule. This rule proved transient when an expert soldier and local aristocrat,Theodore Gabras took control of the city from the Turkish invaders, and regarded Trebizond, in the words ofAnna Comnena, "as a prize which had fallen to his own lot" and ruled it as his own kingdom.[25] Supporting Comnena's assertion,Simon Bendall has identified a group of rare coins he believes was minted by Gabras and his successors.[26] Although he was killed by the Turks in 1098, other members of his family continued his de facto independent rule into the next century.
The young empire required new buildings to honor its name. Their architectural style differs from previous Byzantine architecture, while still retaining many features. Caucasian and Eastern Anatolian influences are especially evident in Hagia Sophia.
Geographically, the Empire of Trebizond consisted of little more than a narrow strip along the southern coast of theBlack Sea, and not much further inland than thePontic Mountains. However, the city gained great wealth from the taxes it levied on the goods traded between Persia and Europe via the Black Sea. The Mongolsiege of Baghdad in 1258 diverted more trade caravans towards the city. Genoese and to a lesser extent Venetian traders regularly came to Trebizond. To secure their part of the Black Sea trade, the Genoese bought the coastal fortification "Leonkastron", just west of the winter harbour, in the year 1306. The Venetians likewise built a trading outpost in the city, a few hundred meters to the west of the Genoese. In between these two Italian colonies settled many other European traders, and it thus became known as the "European Quarter". Small groups of Italians continued to live in the city until the early decades of the 20th century. One of the most famous persons to have visited the city in this period wasMarco Polo, who ended his overland return journey at the port of Trebizond, and sailed to his hometownVenice with a ship; passing byConstantinople (Istanbul) on the way, which was retaken by theByzantines in 1261.
Fantastical depiction of Trebizond byPisanello in a fresco of theSant'Anastasia church inVerona, painted between 1436 and 1438
Together with Persian goods, Italian traders brought stories about the city to Western Europe. Trebizond played a mythical role in European literature of the late Middle Ages and the Renaissance.Miguel de Cervantes andFrançois Rabelais gave their protagonists the desire to possess the city.[30] Next to literature, the legendary history of the city – and that of the Pontus in general – also influenced the creation ofpaintings,theatre plays andoperas in Western Europe throughout the following centuries.
The city also played a role in the earlyRenaissance; the western takeover of Constantinople, which formalized Trebizond's political independence, also led Byzantine intellectuals to seek refuge in the city. EspeciallyAlexios II of Trebizond and his grandsonAlexios III were patrons of the arts and sciences. After the great city fire of 1310, the ruined university was reestablished. As part of the universityGregory Choniades opened a new academy of astronomy, which housed the best observatory outside Persia. Choniades brought with him the works of Shams al-Din al-Bukhari,[31]Nasir al-Din al-Tusi andAbd al-Rahman al-Khazini from Tabriz, which he translated into Greek. These works later found their way to western Europe, together with theastrolabe. The observatory Choniades built would become known for its accuratesolar eclipse predictions, but was probably used mostly forastrological purposes for the emperor and/or the church.[32] Scientists and philosophers of Trebizond were among the first western thinkers to compare contemporaneous theories with classical Greek texts.Basilios Bessarion andGeorge of Trebizond travelled to Italy and taught and published works onPlato andAristotle, starting a fierce debate and literary tradition that continues to this day on the topic of national identity andglobal citizenship. They were so influential that Bessarion was considered for the position ofPope, and George could survive as an academic even after being defamed for his heavy criticism of Plato.
In 1340, Tur Ali Beg, an early ancestor of theAq Qoyunlu, raided Trebizond. In 1348, he besieged Trebizond, however he failed and lifted the siege. Later on,Alexios III of Trebizond gave his sister toKutlu Beg son of Tur Ali Beg, and established a kinship with them.[33]
Its demographic legacy endured for several centuries after the Ottoman conquest in 1461, as a substantial number ofGreek Orthodox inhabitants, usually referred to asPontic Greeks, continued to live in the area during Ottoman rule, up until 1923, when they were deported to Greece. A few thousandGreek Muslims still live in the area, mostly in theÇaykara-Of dialectical region to the southeast of Trabzon. Most are Sunni Muslim, while there are some recent converts in the city[citation needed] and possibly a fewCrypto-Christians in theTonya/Gümüşhane area to the southwest of the city. Compared to most previously Greek cities in Turkey, a large amount of its Greek Byzantine architectural heritage survives as well.
TheCassone with the 'Conquest of Trebizond' byApollonio di Giovanni di Tomaso, on display at theMetropolitan Museum of Art in New York. Painted just after the fall of the city, it depicts Trebizond as being equal toConstantinople (at the far left). Even the battle displayed in between the two cities was mostly a fantasy. The city held a legendary place in Western European literature and thought throughout the late medieval period and the renaissance, with a lasting influence that can be felt even to present times.
The first known plan of Trebizond, drawn around 1604–1610 by Julien Bordier. Many characteristics of the city can be recognized: the two streams dividing the central core, the separately walled quarters, the Genoese town next to the winter harbour, Haghia Sophia at the bottom right, andBoztepe hill at the top left.
The first city-view of Trebizond, published byJoseph Pitton de Tournefort after a drawing by himself or his assistantClaude Aubriet during a visit in 1701. The view shows the city from Haghia Sophia in the distance all the way to the winter harbour. The drawing was made from Boztepe, which is still the most popular place to view the city.
The last Emperor of Trebizond,David, surrendered the city to SultanMehmed II of theOttoman Empire in 1461.[34] Following this takeover, Mehmed II sent many Turkish settlers into the area, but the old ethnicGreek,Laz andArmenian communities remained. According to the Ottoman tax books (tahrir defterleri), the total population of taxable adult males (only those with a household) in the city was 1,473 in the year 1523.[35] The total population of the city was much higher. Approximately 85% of the population was Christian, and 15% Muslim. Thirteen percent of the adult males belonged to the Armenian community, while the vast majority of Christians were Greeks.[35] However, a significant portion of the local Christians wereIslamized by the end of the 17th century - especially those outside the city - according to a research by Prof.Halil İnalcık on the Ottoman tax books (tahrir defterleri). Between 1461 and 1598 Trabzon remained the administrative center of the wider region; first as 'sanjac center' ofRum Eyalet, later ofErzincan-Bayburt eyalet,Anadolu Eyalet, andErzurum Eyalet.[36]
Men and woman gathered for the funeral of an Armenian cleric. Hatchik Tcholakian, 1892.
Trebizond had a wealthy merchant class during the late Ottoman period, and the local Christian minority had a substantial influence in terms of culture, economy and politics. A number of European consulates were opened in the city due to its importance in regional trade and commerce. In the first half of the 19th century, Trebizond even became the main port for Persian exports. The opening of theSuez Canal greatly diminished the international trading position of the city, but did not halt the economic development of the region. In the last decades of the 19th century, the city saw some demographic changes. As the population of the province greatly expanded due to increased living standards, many families and young men - mostlyChristians, but also some Jews and Greek or Turkish speaking Muslims - chose to migrate to the Crimea and southern Ukraine, in search for farmland or employment in one of the cities which had been newly established there. Among these migrants were the grandparents ofBob Dylan[37] and Greek politicians and artists. Many Christian and Muslim families from Trabzon also moved to Constantinople, where they established businesses or sought employment - such as the grandfather ofAhmet Ertegün. These migrants were active in a wide range of trades including baking, confection, tailoring, carpentry, education, advocacy, politics and administration. The influence of this diaspora has since continued, and can still be seen in the many restaurants and shops in cities around the Black Sea in the 21st century such as in Istanbul,Odesa andMariupol. At the same time, thousands of Muslim refugees from the Caucasus arrived in the city, especially after 1864, in what is known as theCircassian genocide.
Next to Constantinople,Smyrna (nowİzmir) and Salonika (nowThessaloniki), Trebizond was one of the cities where western cultural and technological innovations were first introduced to the Ottoman Empire. In 1835, theAmerican Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions opened the Trebizond Mission station that it occupied from 1835 to 1859 and from 1882 to at least 1892.[38] Hundreds of schools were constructed in the province during the first half of the 19th century, giving the region one of the highest literacy rates of the empire. First, the Greek community set up their schools, but soon the Muslim and Armenian communities followed. International schools were also established in the city; An American school, five French schools, a Persian school and a number of Italian schools were opened in the second half of the 19th century.[39] The city got a post office in 1845. New churches and mosques were built in the second half of the 19th century, as well as the first theater, public and private printing houses, multiple photo studios and banks. The oldest known photographs of the city center date from the 1860s and depict one of the lastcamel trains from Persia.
Between one and two thousand Armenians are believed to have been killed in the Trebizondvilayet during theHamidian massacres of 1895. While this number was low in comparison to other Ottoman provinces, its impact on the Armenian community in the city was large. Many prominent Armenian residents, among them scholars, musicians, photographers and painters, decided to migrate towards the Russian Empire or France. The large Greek population of the city was not affected by the massacre.[40]Ivan Aivazovsky made the paintingMassacre of the Armenians in Trebizond 1895 based on the events.[41] Due to the high number of Western Europeans in the city, news from the region was being reported on in many European newspapers. These western newspapers were in turn also very popular among the residents of the city.
Lithograph of Trebizond from the sea by theDickinson Brothers of London, 1853. It shows the city from 'Khonsi point' at the left to Platana (Akçaabat) at the right. This is the first impression most European travellers got of the city (in good weather) until the second half of the 20th century.
In 1901 the harbour was equipped with cranes byStothert & Pitt ofBath in England. In 1912 the Sümer Opera House was opened on the central Meydan square, being one of the first in the empire. The start of theFirst World War brought an abrupt end to the relatively peaceful and prosperous period the city had seen during the previous century. First Trebizond would lose many of its young male citizens at theBattle of Sarikamish in the winter of 1914–15, while during those same months the Russian navy bombarded the city a total of five times, taking 1300[42] lives. Especially the port quarter Çömlekçi and surrounding neighborhoods were targeted.
In July 1915 most of the adult male Armenians of the city were marched off south in five convoys, towards the mines of Gümüşhane, never to be seen again. Other victims of theArmenian genocide were reportedly taken out to sea in boats which were then capsized.[43][44] In some areas of Trebizond province - such as the Karadere river valley in modern-dayAraklı, 25 kilometers east of the city - the local Muslim population tried to protect the Christian Armenians.[45]
The coastal region between the city and the Russian frontier became the site of key battles between the Ottoman andRussian armies during theTrebizond Campaign, as part of theCaucasus Campaign of World War I. The Russian army landed atAtina, east of Rize on March 4, 1916.Lazistan Sanjak fell within two days. However, due to heavy guerrilla resistance around Of and Çaykara some 50 km to the east of Trabzon, it took a further 40 days for the Russian army to advance west.[46] The Ottoman administration of Trabzon foresaw the fall of the city and called for a meeting with community leaders, where they handed control of the city to Greek metropolitan bishopChrysantos Philippidis.
Chrysantos promised to protect the Muslim population of the city. Ottoman forces retreated from Trabzon, and on April 15 the city was taken without a fight by theRussian Caucasus Army under command ofGrand Duke Nicholas andNikolai Yudenich. There was also a massacre of Armenians and Greeks in Trabzon just before the Russian takeover of the city.[47]
In early 1917 Chrysantos tried to broker a peace between the Russians and the Ottomans, to no avail. During theRussian Revolution of 1917 Russian soldiers in the city turned to rioting and looting, with officers commandeering Trebizonian ships to flee the scene. Governor Chrysantos was able to calm the Russian soldiers down, and the Russian Army ultimately retreated from the city and the rest of eastern and northeasternAnatolia. In March and April of 1918 the city hosted theTrebizond Peace Conference, where the Ottomans agreed to give up their military gains in the Caucasus in return for recognition of the eastern borders of the empire in Anatolia by theTranscaucasian Seim (a short-lived transcaucasian government).
In December 1918 Trabzon deputy governorHafız Mehmet gave a speech at theOttoman parliament in which he blamed the former governor ofTrebizond provinceCemal Azmi – a non-native appointee who had fled to Germany after the Russian invasion – for orchestrating the Armenian genocide in the city in 1915, by means of drowning. Subsequently, a series of war crimes trials were held in Trebizond in early 1919 (seeTrebizond during the Armenian genocide). Among others, Cemal Azmi was sentenced to death in absentia.
Chrysanthos Philippidis, metropolitan and governor of Trabzon during part of the First World War. He protected the local population, regardless of religion or ethnicity.
Ali Şükrü Bey, publisher and politician from Trabzon who opposed violence against ethnic minorities and paid the ultimate price for his criticism of Mustafa Kemal
During theTurkish War of Independence several ChristianPontic Greek communities in the Trebizond province rebelled against the new army ofMustafa Kemal (notably inBafra andSanta), but when nationalist Greeks came to Trabzon to proclaim revolution, they were not received with open arms by the local Pontic Greek population of the city. At the same time the Muslim population of the city, remembering their protection under Greek governor Chrysantos, protested the arrest of prominent Christians. Liberal delegates of Trebizond opposed the election of Mustafa Kemal as the leader of the Turkish revolution at theErzurum Congress.
The governor and mayor of Trebizond were appalled by the violence against Ottoman Greek subjects,[48] and the government of Trabzon thus refused arms to Mustafa Kemal's henchmanTopal Osman, who was responsible for mass murders in the western Pontus which were part of theGreek genocide. Osman was forced out of the city by armed Turkish port-workers.[49] Governor Chrysantos travelled to theParis Peace Conference, where he proposed the establishment of theRepublic of Pontus, which would protect its different ethnic groups. For this he was condemned to death by the Turkish Nationalist forces, and he could not return to his post in Trebizond. Instead, the city was to be handed to 'Wilsonian Armenia', which likewise never materialized. Following the war, theTreaty of Sèvres was annulled and replaced with theTreaty of Lausanne (1923). As part of this new treaty, Trebizond became part of the newTurkish Republic. The efforts of the pro-Ottoman, anti-nationalist population of Trebizond only postponed the inevitable, because the national governments of Turkey and Greece agreed to a mutualforced population exchange. This exchange included well over 100,000Greeks from Trebizond and the vicinity, who moved to Greece (founding the new towns ofNea Trapezounta, Pieria andNea Trapezounta, Grevena amongst others).[50]
During the war Trebizond parliamentarianAli Şükrü Bey had been one of the leading figures of thefirst Turkish opposition party. In his newspaperTan, Şükrü and colleagues publicized critiques of the Kemalist government, such as towards the violence perpetrated against Greeks during the population exchange. Şükrü argued that recognition of ethnic diversity was not a threat to the Turkish nation.
Uzun Sokak, a pedestrianized shopping street
Atatürk Alani at Meydan square in Taksim (central Trabzon)
Topal Osman's men would eventually murder parliamentarian Şükrü for his criticism of the nationalist government of Mustafa Kemal in March 1923. Topal Osman was later sentenced to death and killed while resisting arrest. After pressure from the opposition, his headless body was hanged by his foot in front of the Turkish parliament. Ali Şükrü Bey, who had studied inDeniz Harp Okulu (Turkish Naval Academy) and worked as a journalist in the United Kingdom, is seen as a hero by the people of Trabzon, while in neighboring Giresun there is a statue of his murderer Topal Osman. Three years later Trabzon deputy Hafız Mehmet – who had testified to his knowledge of, and opposition to, the Armenian Ggenocide – was also executed, for his alleged involvement in theİzmir plot to assassinate Mustafa Kemal. The literal decapitation of the Turkish political opposition – which was in large part based in the Trabzon region – decreased the city's national influence, and led to a long-standing animosity between the Kemalists and the population of Trabzon. A political and cultural divide between the Eastern Black Sea Region and the rest of Anatolia continued to exist throughout the 20th century, and still influences Turkish politics today. Even in the 21st century, politicians who hail from Trabzon are often faced with xenophobic attacks from both nationalist and conservative circles.[citation needed]
During World War II shipping activity was limited because the Black Sea had again become a war zone. Hence, the most important export products,tobacco andhazelnuts, could not be sold and living standards degraded.
As a result of the general development of the country, Trabzon has developed its economic and commercial life. The coastal highway and a new harbour have increased commercial relations with central Anatolia, which has led to some growth. However, progress has been slow in comparison to the western and the southwestern parts of Turkey.
Trabzon is famous throughout Turkey for itsanchovies calledhamsi, which are the main meal in many restaurants in the city. Major exports from Trabzon includehazelnuts andtea.
The city still has a sizable community ofGreek-speaking Muslims, most of whom are originally from the vicinities ofTonya,Sürmene andÇaykara. However, the variety of thePontic Greek language - known as "Romeika" in the local vernacular,Pontiaka in Greek, andRumca in Turkish - is spoken mostly by the older generations.[51]
Trabzon Province has a total area of 4,685 square kilometres (1,809 sq mi) and is bordered by the provinces ofRize,Giresun, andGümüşhane. The total area is 22.4% plateau and 77.6% hills. ThePontic Mountains pass through the Trabzon Province.
Trabzon used to be an importantreference point fornavigators in the Black Sea during harsh weather conditions. The popular expression "perdere la Trebisonda" (losing Trebizond) is still commonly used in theItalian language to describe situations in which the sense of direction is lost.[22] The Italian maritime republics such asVenice and in particularGenoa were active in the Black Sea trade for centuries.[22]
Trabzon has four lakes:Uzungöl, Çakırgöl, Sera, and Haldizen Lakes. There are several streams, but no rivers in Trabzon.
Trabzon has a climate typical of the eastern Black Sea region, ahumid subtropical climate (Köppen:Cfa,Trewartha: Cf) near the coast.[52] A very small percentage of the province can be classified as subtropical, however, as slightly elevated rural areas near the coast areoceanic (Cfb/Do), the mountainous offshores arehumid continental (Dfb/Dc) andsubarctic (Dfc/Eo); andtundra (ET/Ft) can be found in the peaks of the Pontic Alps. Furthermore, during the time theKöppen climate classification was created, the city center had a borderline oceanic-humid subtropical climate, falling just under the 22 °C (72 °F) threshold for the hottest month of the year, yetclimate change and the city'surban heat island contributed to its reclassification as humid subtropical in recent decades. This and the fact that the subtropical microclimate zone along the shore occupies a very narrow band due to the continuous parallel mountain range starting right at the coast is why local authorities still classify the city as oceanic, as this climate subtype is better representative of the entire coastal region of the province.[53][54]
Summers are warm, the average maximum temperature is around 28 °C (82 °F) in August, while winters are generally cool, the lowest average minimum temperature is almost 5 °C (41 °F) in February. Precipitation is heaviest in autumn and winter, with a marked reduction in the summer months, amicroclimatic condition of the city center compared to the rest of the region.[55] Snowfall is somewhat common between the months of December and March, snowing for a week or two, and it can be heavy once it snows (this is due to the "lake-effect snow"). The heaviest recorded snowfall in the city center was 115 cm (45.3 inches), recorded on 15 January 1950.[56]
The water temperature, like in the rest of the Black Sea coast of Turkey, is generally mild, and fluctuates between 8 °C (46 °F) and 20 °C (68 °F) throughout the year.
Climate data for Trabzon (1991–2020, extremes 1927–2023)
Postcard of theart nouveau style theatre/cinema in Trabzon
As of 1920, the port at Trabzon was considered "the most important of the Turkish Black Sea ports" by theBritish. It traded as far asTabriz andMosul. As of 1911, theCentral Bank of the Republic of Turkey signed an agreement to develop aharbor at the port. When the Russians occupied Trabzon, amole was built.[60] They built abreakwater and were responsible for creating an extended pier, making loading and unloading easier. In 1920, Trabzon producedlinen cloth,silverfilagree,tanning and small amounts ofcotton,silk andwool.Tobacco andhazelnuts were exported.[61] The tobacco produced in Trabzon was calledTrebizond-Platana. It was described as having "large leaves and a bright colour."[62] Trabzon was known for producing poor qualitycereals, mostly for local use.[63]
Trabzon produced a whitegreen bean, which was sold in Europe. It was, as of 1920, the only vegetable exported out of the province.[62]Poultry farming was also popular in Trabzon.Sericulture was seen in the area before 1914.[64] The area producedcopper,silver,zinc,iron andmanganese. Copper was kept for local use bycoppersmiths. During theBalkan Wars production ceased due to poor exportation and fuel supplies.[65]
Trebizond was an overwhelminglyChristian andGreek city at the time of its fall to theOttomans in 1461. The Greek Christians slowly lost their majority through the end of that century. Initially, the Muslims were mainly immigrants fromAnatolia with a minority of local converts, but this quickly changed with the emergence of an active missionary spirit in the 16th century, as mosques anddervish lodges were built in predominantly Christian neighborhoods.[66]
Laz people also live in Trabzon. Numerous villages inside and out of Trabzon of the Laz date back as early as the period ofQueen Tamar's rule (Georgian: თამარი, also transliterated as T'amar or Thamar; c. 1160 – 18 January 1213) in the newly unifiedKingdom of Georgia. During the Queen's rule, sizeable groups of immigrating Georgians moved to Trabzon where they continue to preserve their native tongue. There was an Armenian community in Trebizond as early as the 7th century.[67]
During the 13th and 14th centuries, numerousArmenian families migrated there fromAni.[67] Robert W. Edwards published part of an early 15th-century diary from the Castilian ambassador who visited Trabzon and compared the churches of the Greek and Armenian communities.[68] It was stated by the ambassador that the Armenians, who were not well-liked by the Greeks, had a population large enough to support a resident bishop. According to Ronald C. Jennings, in the early 16th century, Armenians made up approximately 13 percent[69] of the city's population.[70] At present, Trabzon does not have an Armenian-speaking community.
TheChepni people, a tribe ofOghuz Turks who played an important role in the history of the eastern Black Sea area in the 13th and 14th centuries, live in theŞalpazarı (Ağasar valley) region of the Trabzon Province.[71] Very little has been written on theTurkification of the area. There are no historical records of any considerable Turkish-speaking groups in the Trabzon area until the late 15th century, with the exception of the Chepnis. The originalGreek (and in some regionsArmenian) speakers imposed features from their mother language into the Turkish spoken in the region.Heath W. Lowry's[72] work with Halil İnalcık on Ottoman tax books (Tahrir Defteri)[73] provides detailed demographic statistics for the city of Trabzon and its surrounding areas during the Ottoman period.
It is possible that the majority of the population of Trabzon andRize (another ancient Greek colony in the Pontus region) — except up to the time of the Chepni Turk immigration waves — consisted of indigenous Caucasian tribes (theColchians and the Laz) who had been partlyHellenized religiously and linguistically.[74] Michael Meeker stresses the cultural resemblances (e.g. in village structure, house types, and pastoral techniques) between the Eastern Black Sea coast and the areas in theCaucasus proper.[75]
Trabzon has a number of tourist attractions, some of them dating back to the times of theancientempires that once existed in the region. In the city itself, one can find a hub of shops, stalls and restaurants surrounding theMeydan, a square in the center of the city, which includes a tea garden.
TheHagia Sophia (formerlyTurkish:Ayasofya Müzesi, now a mosque), a stunning Byzantine church, is probably the town's most important tourist attraction.
Trabzon Castle ruins are visible in the town but cannot be visited as they fall in a military zone. The outside wall of the castle now serves as the back wall of a military building.
The "Atatürk Köşkü" is a villa built in 1890 by a local Greek merchant. In 1924Mustafa Kemal Atatürk stayed in the villa during his visit to Trabzon. He stayed there again in 1937. It houses period rooms and serves as a monument to the memory of the founder and first president of the Republic of Turkey.
Boztepe Park is a small park and tea garden on the hills above Trabzon that has a panoramic view of nearly the entire city. The terrain in Trabzon is ascending in such a way that although the view is far above that of the buildings below, it is still close enough to be able to observe the flow of traffic and the people moving about in the city.
Uzun Sokak is one of the most crowded streets of Trabzon.
Trabzon Museum is located in the town centre and offers interesting exhibits on the history of the region, including an impressive collection of Byzantine artifacts.
Trabzon's Bazaar District offers interesting shopping opportunities on ancient narrow streets, continuing from Kunduracılar Street from the Meydan (town square).
Saint Anne Church, Trabzon, is located in the city centre of Trabzon, and one of the oldest in the city.
Uzungöl Dursun Ali İnan Museum An ethnographic museum inUzungol that tells the history of Trabzon and the region.
Other sites of the city include:Fatih Mosque (originally the Panagia Khrysokephalos Church),Yeni Cuma Mosque (originally the Agios Eugenios Church),Nakip Mosque (originally the Agios Andreas Church), Hüsnü Köktuğ Mosque (originally the Agios Elevtherios Church),İskender Pasha Mosque, Semerciler Mosque, Çarşı Mosque, Gülbahar Hatun Mosque and Türbe (commissioned by SultanSelim I), andKalepark (originally Leonkastron).
WithinTrabzon Province, the main attractions are theSümela Monastery (i. e. the Monastery of the Panagia Soumelá) and theUzungöl lake. The monastery is built on the side of a very steep mountain overlooking the green forests below and is about 50 kilometres (31 miles) south of the city. Uzungöl is known for its natural environment and scenery. Other sites of interest in the broader region include:
Kaymaklı Monastery, a formerly Armenian Monastery of the All-Saviour (arm. Ամենափրկիչ Վանք, Amenaprgič Vank);
Kızlar Monastery of Panagia Theoskepastos (the God-veiled Virgin);
Kuştul Monastery of Gregorios Peristereotas (gr. Ιερά Μονή του Αγίου Γεωργίου Περιστερεώτα, Ierá Moní tou Agíou Georgíou Peristereóta);
Postcard of Trabzon showing the national dance Horon
Folk dancing is still very much in evidence in theBlack Sea Region. The "Horon" is a famous dance that is indigenous to the city and its surrounding area. It is performed by men, women, the young and elderly alike; in festivities, local weddings andharvest times.[77] While similar to RussianCossack dances in terms of vividness, the Trabzon folk dance is probably indigenous to the eastern Black Sea region, which has an impressive variety of folk music.
The people of Trabzon have a reputation for being religiously conservative and nationalist. Many Trabzonites generally show a strong sense of loyalty to their family, friends, religion and country. Atatürk selected his presidential guards from Trabzon and the neighbouring city ofGiresun because of their fierce fighting ability and their loyalty.
Outside of the relatively urban space of Trabzon proper, and within parts of it as well, rural traditions from the Black Sea village life are still thriving. These include traditional gender roles,social conservatism, hospitality, and a willingness to help strangers; and all aspects, both positive and negative, of an agrarian lifestyle, such as hard work, poverty, strong family ties, and a closeness to nature.
The people of the eastern Black Sea region are also known for their wit and sense of humour; many jokes in Turkey are told about the natives of the Black Sea regionKaradeniz fıkraları (Black Sea jokes). The characterTemel, a universal buffoon figure found in many cultures, forms an important part of the Turkish oral tradition.
Historically the city was a center of Greek culture and education and from 1683 to 1921, a teachers' college operated known asPhrontisterion of Trapezous, which provided a major impetus for the rapid expansion of Greek education throughout the region.[79] The building of this institution (built in 1902) still remains the most impressivePontic Greek monument in the city and today hosts the Turkish schoolAnadolu Lisesi.[80]
Trabzon's regional cuisine is traditionally reliant on fish, especiallyhamsi (freshEuropean Anchovy similar to the British Sprat or American Smelt). Trabzon meets 20% of the total fish production in Turkey. Regional dishes include theAkçaabatköfte (spicy lamb meatball from the Akçaabat district),Karadeniz pidesi (canoe shapedpita bread, often filled with ground beef, cheese and eggs),kuymak (a Turkish fondue made with cornmeal, fresh butter and cheese),Vakfıkebir ekmeği (large country-style bread),Tonya tereyağı (Tonya butter),tava mısır ekmeği (deep-dish corn bread) andkara lahana çorbası (bean and cabbage soup).[81]Taflan kavurması is acherry laurel dish served with onions andolive oil. Trabzon is also famous for itshazelnuts. TheBlack Sea region of Turkey is the world's largest producer ofcherry andhazelnut; and a large production area oftea; all of which play an important role in the local cuisine.[82]
Photograph of a football team of Trabzonspor in 1920–1925
Football is the most popular sport in Trabzon. The city's top sports club,Trabzonspor, was until2010 the only Turkish football club outside İstanbul to win theSüper Lig (six times), which was previously (until Trabzonspor's first championship title in the1975–76 season) won only by the "Big Three" clubs ofIstanbul, namelyGalatasaray,Fenerbahçe, andBeşiktaş. Due to Trabzonspor's success, the decades-old term "Big Three" which defined the most successful football clubs in Turkey had to be modified into the "Big Four".Trabzonspor is also one of the most successful Turkish clubs in theEuropean Cups, managing to beat numerous prominent teams such asBarcelona,Inter,Liverpool,Aston Villa,Monaco, andLyon. Renowned former players of Trabzonspor includeŞenol Güneş,Lars Olsen andShota Arveladze. In the 2021–2022 season, Trabzonspor left their Istanbul competition far behind, securing an early championship and ending a 38-year dry streak. Hundreds of thousands Trabzonite expatriates and fans from around the globe made their way to the city to participate in one of the first mass gatherings in the country for nearly two years, marking the end of the Corona pandemic. Officially the pandemic-measures had not been fully lifted, which led to some criticism towards the city's municipal government for allowing the festivities to continue for hours into the night, long past curfew.
^Corominas, Joan; Pascual, José A. (1991).Diccionario crítico etimológico castellano e hispánico (in Spanish). Vol. RI–X (3rd reprint ed.). Madrid: Gredos. p. 592.ISBN84-249-0879-1.
^Phoenix: The Peoples of the Hills: Ancient Ararat and Caucasus by Charles Burney, David Marshall Lang, Phoenix Press; New Ed edition (December 31, 2001)
^Ronald Grigor Suny, The Making of the Georgian Nation: 2nd edition (December 1994), Indiana University Press,ISBN0-253-20915-3, page 45
^"A Star in the East".TimothyGrove.Blogspot.ro. 23 July 2012. Retrieved14 January 2018.
^Calzolari, V. "The Armenian translation of the Greek Neoplatonic Works" inGreek Texts and Armenian Traditions: An Interdisciplinary Approach, 2016, p. 51
^ History of Trebizond, Virtual Genocide Memorial[1]
^R.B. Serjeant,Islamic Textiles: material for a history up to the Mongol conquest, 1972, pp 63, 213, noted by David Jacoby, "Silk Economics and Cross-Cultural Artistic Interaction: Byzantium, the Muslim World, and the Christian West",Dumbarton Oaks Papers58 (2004:197–240) p. 219 note 112.
^Speros Vryonis,The Decline of Medieval Hellenism in Asia Minor and the Process of Islamization from the Eleventh through the Fifteenth Century (Berkeley: University of California, 1971), p. 16
^Robert W. Edwards, "The Garrison Forts of the Pontos: A Case for the Diffusion of the Armenian Paradigm",Revue des Études Arméniennes 19, 1985, pp.181–284.
^Finlay, George. The History Of Greece From Its Conquest By The Crusaders To Its Conquest By The Turks And Of The Empire Of Trebizond, 1204–1461, By George Finlay. 1st ed. Edinburgh: W. Blackwood and sons, 1851. Print.
^Vasilev, A. A. The Foundation Of The Empire Of Trebizond 1204–1222. 1st ed. Cambridge, Mass.: Medieval Academy of America, 1936. Print.
^'The lure of Trebizond' byAntony Eastmond, inByzantium's Other Empire: Trebizond, p. 22, 2016, Istanbul
^"Shams al‐Dīn al‐Bukhārī". Thomas Hockey et al. (eds.).The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers. New York: Springer, 2007, pp. 1047–1048. Retrieved 12 January 2018.
^Rev. M. P. Parmalee (1892).Proceedings of the ABCFM for the year 1892. Boston: Samuel Usher. p. 229. Retrieved1 May 2017.Trebizond was occupied as a missionary station in 1835... The following is a list of missionaries who have been connected with the station for at least one year: ... Rev.G. W. Wood, 1842 – 1843"
^Rev. Edwin Munsell Blis on the Hamidian Massacres in 'Modern Genocide: The Definitive Resource and Document Collection', 2014, p. 147, Paul R. Bartrop & Steven Leonard Jacobs (eds)
^Baum, Wilhelm (2006).The Christian minorities in Turkey. Kitab. p. 162.ISBN978-3-902005-62-5. "On October 11, 1922, Turkey concluded an armistice with the allied forces, but not with the Greeks. The Greeks in the other settlement areas of Asia Minor were also expelled at that time, like e.g. the Kappadocian Greeks in the Goreme area and the other Greeks in Pontus, in the Trebizond area and on the west coast."
^abVictor Amazaspovich Ambartsumian; Abel Poghosi Simonyan; Makich Vahani Arzumanyan (1986). "Yerevan".Haykakan sovetakan hanragitaran ["Soviet Armenian Encyclopedia"] (in Armenian). Vol. 12. p. 87.OCLC10431241.
^Robert W. Edwards, "Armenian and Byzantine Religious Practices in Early Fifteenth-Century Trabzon: A Spanish Viewpoint",Revue des Études Arméniennes 23, 1992, pp. 81–90.
^Jennings, Ronald C. (Jan. 1976)Urban Population in Anatolia in the 16th Century: International Journal of MiddleEast Studies, Vol. 7, No. 1 pp. 21–57.
^Bernt Brendemoen,The Turkish dialects of Trabzon,University of Oslo, 2002 p. 18
^Professor. Department of Near Eastern Studies. Princeton University
^Michael Meeker, "The Black Sea Turks: some aspects of their ethnic and cultural background",International Journal of Middle East Studies (1971)2:318–345
^Meeker, 1971: p. 326 "As the mentioned, the villages along the Black Sea coast from Ordu to Artvin are composed of many hamlets, each dominating a hilltop or mountainside on which its own crops are separately planted. This type of settlement pattern is in sharp contrast with the typical nucleated Anatolian village, but its characteristic of many rural settlements of the Western Caucasus notably those of Abkhaz, Circassians, Georgians, Mingrelians, and Ossetes..." For similar ideas See: Karl Koch, Reise duch Russland nach dem Kaukasis chen Istmus in den Jahren, 1836. vol1. p. 378; W.E.D. Allen,A History of the Georgian People, London 1932. pp. 54–5; Özhan Öztürk, Karadeniz. 2005. p. 35, 757–68. For linguistic influence see: Bernt Brendomoen,Laz influence on the Black Sea Turkish Dialects, 1990 (Proceedings from 32nd meeting of the Permanent International Altaistic Conference)
Bryer, Anthony; David Winfield (March 1985).Byzantine Monuments and Topography of the Pontos (Dumbarton Oaks Studies,20) Two Volume Set. Dumbarton Oaks Pub Service.ISBN0-88402-122-X.
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