Toruń is one of the oldest cities in Poland; it was first settled in the 8th century and in 1233 was expanded by theTeutonic Knights.[9] For centuries it was home to people of diverse backgrounds and religions. From 1264 until 1411, Toruń was part of theHanseatic League and by the 17th century a leading trading point, which greatly affected the city's architecture, ranging fromBrick Gothic toMannerist andBaroque.
In the Early Modern period, Toruń was aroyal city of Poland and one of Poland's four largest cities.[10] With thepartitions of Poland in the late 18th century, it became part ofPrussia, then of the short-livedDuchy of Warsaw, serving as the temporary Polish capital in 1809,[11] then again of Prussia, of theGerman Empire and, afterWorld War I, of the rebornPolish Republic. During theSecond World War, Toruń was spared bombing and destruction; its Old Town and iconic central marketplace have been entirely preserved.[12]
The exact origin of the city's name is unknown. According to the findings of some linguists and historians, it is derived from the Old Slavic word "tor" (meaning "a beaten path").[14]
The settlement was first mentioned in 1226 under the nameThorun.[15] In later documents, it also appeared asTuron,Turun, andThoron.[15] From the 15th century onward, the monosyllabic formThorn came into use.[15]
The city'sLatin name may be given as eitherThorunium orThorunum.[16]
The first settlement in the vicinity of Toruń is dated byarchaeologists to 1100 BC (Lusatian culture).[17] During early medieval times, in the 7th through 13th centuries, it was the location of an oldSlavonic settlement,[18] at a ford of the riverVistula. In the 10th century it became part of the emerging Polish state ruled by thePiast dynasty.
The Gothic Old Town Hall (Ratusz Staromiejski) dates back to the 13th century
In spring 1231 theTeutonic Knights crossed the river Vistula near the town ofNieszawa and established a fortress. On 28 December 1233, Teutonic KnightsHermann von Salza andHermann Balk[19] signed thecity charters for Toruń (Thorn) andChełmno (Kulm). The original document was lost in 1244. The set of rights in general is known asKulm law. In 1236, due to frequent flooding,[20] it was relocated to the present site of the Old Town. In 1239Franciscan friars settled in the city, followed in 1263 byDominicans. In 1264 the adjacent New Town was founded, predominantly to house Torun's growing population of craftsmen and artisans, who predominantly came from German-speaking lands.[21]In 1280, the city (or as it was then, both cities) joined the mercantileHanseatic League, and thus became an importantmedieval trade centre.
In the 14th century, papal verdicts ordered the restoration of the area to Poland; however, the Teutonic Knights did not comply and continued to occupy the region.[22] The city was recaptured by Poland in 1410 during thePolish–Lithuanian–Teutonic War. During the war, the city council maintained contact and cooperated with Polish KingWładysław II Jagiełło;[23] however, after theFirst Peace of Thorn was signed in the city in February 1411, the city fell back to the Teutonic Order. In 1411, the city left theHanseatic League. In the 1420s, Polish KingWładysław II Jagiełło built theDybów Castle, located in present-day left-bank Toruń, which he visited numerous times.[24] During the next bigPolish–Teutonic War, Dybów Castle was occupied by the Teutonic Knights from 1431 to 1435.[24] The city refused to pay taxes to the Teutonic Knights, not wanting to finance their war against Poland.[25]
In 1440, the gentry of Toruń co-founded thePrussian Confederation to further oppose the Knights' policies. From 1452, talks between Polish KingCasimir IV Jagiellon and the burghers of the Confederation were held at Dybów Castle.[24] The Confederation rose against theMonastic state of the Teutonic Knights in 1454 and its delegation submitted a petition to Polish KingCasimir IV Jagiellon asking him to regain power over the region as its rightful ruler. An act of incorporation was signed inKraków 6 March 1454, recognizing the region (including Toruń), as part[26] of thePolish Kingdom.
Second Peace of Toruń, 19th-century painting by Toruń-born painter Marian Jaroczyński, exhibited in the localDistrict Museum
These events led to theThirteen Years' War. The citizens of the city, enraged by the Order's ruthless exploitation, conquered the Teutonic castle, and dismantled the fortifications brick by brick, except for the Gdanisko tower which was used until the 18th century to store gunpowder.[27][28] The local mayor pledged allegiance to the Polish king during the incorporation in March 1454 in Kraków,[29] and then in May 1454, an official ceremony was held in Toruń, in which the nobility, knights, landowners, mayors, and local officials fromChełmno Land, including Toruń, again solemnly swore allegiance to the Polish king and the Kingdom of Poland.[30] Since 1454, the city has been authorized by King Casimir IV to mint Polish coins.[31] During the war, Casimir IV often stayed at the Dybów Castle[32] and Toruń financially supported the Polish Army. The New Town and Old Town amalgamated in 1454.
The Thirteen Years' War ended in 1466, with theSecond Peace of Thorn, in which theTeutonic Order renounced any claims to the city and recognised it as part of Poland.[33] The Polish king granted the town great privileges, similar to those ofGdańsk. Also in 1454 atDybów Castle, the King issued the famousStatutes of Nieszawa, covering a set of privileges for thePolish nobility; an event that is regarded as the birth of the noble democracy in Poland, which lasted until the country'sdemise in 1795.
In 1473,Nicolaus Copernicus was born, and in 1501 Polish kingJohn I Albert died in Toruń; his heart was buried inSt. John's Cathedral. In 1500, theTuba Dei, the largestchurch bell in Poland at the time, was installed at Toruń Cathedral, and a bridge across the Vistula was built, the country's longest wooden bridge at the time. In 1506, Toruń became aroyal city of Poland. In 1528, theroyal mint started operating in Toruń. In 1568, a gymnasium was founded, which after 1594 became one of the leading schools of northern Poland for centuries to come.[34] Also in 1594, Toruń's first museum (Musaeum) was established at the school, beginning the city's museal traditions. A city of great wealth and influence, it enjoyed voting rights during theroyal election period.[35]Sejms of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth were held in Toruń in 1576 and 1626.[36]
Toruń in 1641
In 1557, during theProtestant Reformation, the city adoptedProtestantism. Under MayorHenryk Stroband (1586–1609), the city became centralized. Administrative power passed into the hands of the city council. In 1595,Jesuits arrived to promote theCounter-Reformation, taking control of St John's Church. Protestant city officials tried to limit the influx ofCatholics into the city, as Catholics (Jesuits andDominican friars) already controlled most of the churches, leaving only St Mary's for Protestant citizens. In 1645, at a time when religious conflicts occurred in many other European countries and the disastrousThirty Years' War was fought west of Poland, in Toruń, on the initiative of KingWładysław IV Vasa, a three-month congress of European Catholics,Lutherans, andCalvinists was held, known asColloquium Charitativum; an important event in the history of interreligious dialogue.[37]
During theGreat Northern War (1700–21), the city was besieged by Swedish troops. The restoration ofAugustus II the Strong as King of Poland was prepared in the city in theTreaty of Thorn (1709) by the Russian tsarPeter the Great. In the second half of the 17th century, tensions between Catholics and Protestants grew. In the early 18th century about 50 percent of the populace, especially the gentry and middle class, were German-speaking Protestants, while the other 50 percent were Polish-speakingRoman Catholics.[38] Protestant influence was subsequently pushed back after theTumult of Thorn of 1724.
After theSecond Partition of Poland in 1793, the city was annexed byPrussia. It was briefly regained by Poles as part of theDuchy of Warsaw in 1807–1815, even serving as the temporary capital in April and May 1809.[11] During these years the city began to attract a growingJewish community.[39] In 1809, Toruń was successfully defended by the Poles against the Austrians. After being re-annexed by Prussia in 1815, Toruń was subjected toGermanisation and became a strong center ofPolish resistance against such policies. The city's first synagogue was inaugurated in 1847.[39] New Polish institutions were established, such as Towarzystwo Naukowe w Toruniu (Toruń Scientific Society), a major Polish institution in thePrussian Partition of Poland, founded in 1875. AfterWorld War I, Poland declared independence and regained control over the city. Ininterwar Poland, Toruń was the capital of thePomeranian Voivodeship.
A group of Polish railwaymen and policemen from Toruń were murdered by the Germangendarmerie andWehrmacht inGąbin on 19–21 September 1939.[41] Local Poles, including activists, teachers and priests, arrested in Toruń andToruń County beginning in September 1939, were initially held in the pre-war prison, and after it became overcrowded in October 1939, the Germans imprisoned Poles in Fort VII of theToruń Fortress.[42] On 17–19 October 1939 alone, the German police and theSelbstschutz arrested 1,200 Poles in Toruń and Toruń County.[42] In early November 1939, the Germans carried out further mass arrests of Polish teachers, farmers and priests in Toruń and the county, who were then imprisoned in Fort VII.[42] Imprisoned Poles were then either deported toconcentration camps or murdered onsite.[42]
Largemassacres of over 1,100 Poles from the city and region, including teachers, school principals, local officials, restaurateurs, shop owners, merchants, farmers, railwaymen, policemen, craftsmen, students, priests, workers, doctors, were carried out in the present-day district ofBarbarka.[43] Six mass graves were discovered after the war, in five of which the bodies of the victims were burned, as the Germans had tried to cover up the crime.[44] Local teachers were also among Polish teachers murdered in theSachsenhausen-Oranienburg,Mauthausen andDachau concentration camps.[45] Nonetheless, thePolish resistance movement was active in the city, and Toruń was the seat of one of the six main commands of theUnion of Armed Struggle in occupied Poland (alongsideWarsaw,Kraków,Poznań,Białystok andLwów).[46]
During the occupation, Germany established and operatedStalag XX-Aprisoner-of-war camp in the city, with multiple forced labour subcamps in the region, in which Polish, British,French, Australian andSoviet POWs were held. From 1940 to 1943, in the northern part of the city the German transit campUmsiedlungslager Thorn [pl] for Poles expelled from Toruń and the surrounding area, became infamous for inhuman sanitary conditions.[47] Over 12,000 Poles passed through the camp, and around 1,000 died there, including about 400 children.[47] From 1941 to 1945, a Germanforced labour camp was located in the city.[48] In the spring of 1942, the Germans murdered 30 Polish scouts aged 13–16 in Fort VII.[49]
While the city's population suffered many atrocities, as described, there were no battles or bombings that damaged its buildings. Thus, the city avoided damage during both World Wars, and retained its historic architecture, ranging fromGothic throughRenaissance andBaroque to 19th and 20th century styles.
Listed on the UNESCO list ofWorld Heritage Sites since 1997, Toruń has many monuments of architecture dating back to theMiddle Ages. The city is famous for having preserved almost intact its medieval spatial layout and many Gothic buildings, all built frombrick, including monumental churches, the Town Hall and many burgher houses.
Toruń has the largest number ofpreserved Gothic houses in Poland, many with Gothic wall paintings or wood-beam ceilings from the 16th to the 18th centuries.
TheCathedral of SS. John the Evangelist and John the Baptist, an aisled hall church built in the 14th century and extended in the 15th century; outstanding Gothic sculptures and paintings inside (Moses, St. Mary Magdalene, gravestone of Johann von Soest), Renaissance and Baroque epitaphs and altars (among them the epitaph of Copernicus from 1580), as well as theTuba Dei, the largest medievalchurch bell in Poland and one of the largest in Europe
St. Mary's church, a formerly Franciscan aisled hall built in the 14th century
St. James the Greater's church (often mistakenly called St Jacob's), a basilica from the 14th century, with monumental wall paintings and Gothic stalls
TheOld Town Hall was inaugurated in 1274, than extended and rebuilt between 1391 and 1399, and extended again at the end of the 16th century; considered one of the most monumental town halls in Central Europe (Toruń Regional Museum orMuzeum Okręgowe in Polish)
City fortifications, begun in the 13th century, extended between the 14th and 15th centuries, mostly demolished in the 19th century, but partially preserved with a few city gates and watchtowers (among them the so-calledLeaning Tower) from the Vistula side. See also:Toruń Fortress
A 15th-century Gothic house (now a museum) where Copernicus was reputedly born
House at the sign of the Star (Polish:Kamienica Pod Gwiazdą, the East Asian Museum, previously Gothic, briefly owned byFilip Callimachus, then rebuilt in the 16th century and in 1697, with a richly decorated stucco façade and wooden spiral stairs.
Monastery Gate, a medieval gate that has survived to the present day
Toruń, unlike many other historic cities in Poland, escaped substantial destruction in World War II. Particularly left intact was the Old Town, all of whose important architectural monuments are originals, not reconstructions.
Major renovation projects have been undertaken in recent years to improve the condition and external presentation of the Old Town. Besides the renovation of various buildings, projects such as the reconstruction of the pavement of the streets and squares (reversing them to their historical appearance), and the introduction of new plants, trees and objects of 'small architecture', are underway.
Numerous buildings and other constructions, including the city walls along the boulevard, are illuminated at night, creating an impressive effect – probably unique among Polish cities with respect to the size of Toruń's Old Town and the scale of the illumination project itself.
Toruń is also home to theZoo and Botanical Garden opened in 1965 and 1797 respectively and is one of the city's popular tourist attractions.
Toruń is divided into 24 administrative districts (dzielnica) or boroughs, each with a degree of autonomy within its own municipal government. The Districts include:Barbarka, Bielany, Bielawy, Bydgoskie Przedmieście, Chełmińskie Przedmieście, Czerniewice, Glinki, Grębocin nad Strugą, Jakubskie Przedmieście, Kaszczorek, Katarzynka, Koniuchy, Mokre, Na Skarpie,Piaski,Podgórz, Rubinkowo, Rudak, Rybaki, Stare Miasto (Old Town), Starotoruńskie Przedmieście, Stawki, Winnica, Wrzosy.
The colors of Toruń are white and blue in the horizontal arrangement, white top, blue bottom, equal in size. The flag of the city of Toruń is a bipartite sheet. The upper field is white, the lower field is blue. If the flag is hung vertically, the upper edge of the flag must be on the left.[50]
The flag with the coat of arms is also in use. The ratio of the height of the coat of arms to the width of the flag is 1:2.[51]
The climate can be described ashumid continental (Köppen:Dfb) if the isotherm of 0 °C (32 °F) is used or anoceanic climate (Cfb) if the −3 °C (27 °F) isotherm is adopted. Back in 1930s, the city passed close to the original boundary and dividing line of climates C and D groups in the north–south direction proposed by climatologistWladimir Köppen.[52] Toruń is in the transition between the milder climates of the west and north of thePoland and the more extreme ones like the south (warmer summer) and the east (colder winter). It is not much different from the climates of more southerlyKraków[53] and easterlyWarsaw,[54] though it has slightly milder winters and more moderate summers.[55][56]
Being close to definitelycontinental climates, it has a high variability caused by the contact of eastern continental air masses and western oceanic ones. This is influenced by the geographical location of the city – the Toruń Basin to the south, and the Vistula Valley to the north.[57]
Climate data for Toruń (St. Joseph), elevation: 69 m, 1991–2020 normals, extremes 1951–present
Dąmbski Palace – a baroque residence located on Żeglarska Street
The most recent statistics show a decrease in the population of the city, from 211,169 in 2001 (highest) to 202,562 in 2018. Among the demographic trends influencing this decline, are: suburbanisation, migration to larger urban centres, and wider trends observed in the whole of Poland such as general population decline, slowed down by immigration in 2017. The birth rate in the city in 2017 was 0.75. Low birthrates have been consistent in the city for the first two decades of 21st Century.
The official forecasts fromStatistics Poland state that by 2050 the city population will have declined to 157,949.
Inside the city itself, most of the population is concentrated on the right (northern) bank of the Vistula river. Two of the most densely populated areas are Rubinkowo and Na Skarpie, housing projects built mostly in the 1970s and 1980s, located between the central and easternmost districts; their total population is about 70,000.
TheBydgoszcz–Toruń metro area of Toruń andBydgoszcz, their counties, and a number of smaller towns, may in total have a population of as much as 800,000. Thus the area contains about one third of the population of the Kuyavia-Pomerania region (which has about 2.1 million inhabitants).[citation needed]
The transport network in the city has undergone major development in recent years. The partial completion of ring road (East and South), the completion of the second bridge (2013) and various road, and cycling lane improvements, including construction ofTrasa Średnicowa, have decidedly improved the traffic in the city. However, noise barriers that have been erected along the new or refurbished roads have been criticised as not conducive to a beautiful urban landscape. The extensive roadworks have also drawn attention to the declining population numbers, casting doubt that the city might over-deliver for the future number of road users, as the demographic trends forecast fromStatistics Poland predicts a reduction of population by almost 1/4 by year 2050.[69]
The city's public transport system consists of an extensivetram network with seven lines. The Tram network operates exclusively on the northern bank of the Vistula river.
In addition to the tram network, the city runs 40 day time bus routes and six night time bus routes, covering the city and some of the neighboring communities including the southern side of the city.
Toruń is situated at a major road junction, one of the most important in Poland. TheA1highway reaches Toruń, and a southernbeltway surrounds the city. Besides these, theEuropean route E75 and a number of domestic roads (numbered 10, 15, and 80) run through the city.
With three main railway stations (Toruń Główny, Toruń Miasto and Toruń Wschodni), the city is a major rail junction, with two important lines crossing there (Warsaw–Bydgoszcz andWrocław–Olsztyn). Two other lines stem from Toruń, towardMalbork andSierpc.
Józef Piłsudski Bridge over theVistula river, the older of the two road bridges in Toruń
The rail connection withBydgoszcz is run under a name "BiT City" as a "metropolitan rail". Its main purpose is to allow traveling between and within these cities using one ticket. A joint venture of Toruń,Bydgoszcz,Solec Kujawski and the voivodeship, it is considered as important in integratingBydgoszcz-Toruń metropolitan area. A major modernization of BiT City railroute, as well as a purchase of completely new vehicles to serve the line, is planned for 2008 and 2009. Technically, it will allow to travel between Toruń-East and Bydgoszcz-Airport stations at a speed of 120 km/h (75 mph) in a time of approximately half an hour. In a few years' time "BiT City" will be integrated with local transportation systems of Toruń and Bydgoszcz, thus creating a uniform metropolitan transportation network – with all necessary funds having been secured in 2008.
Since September 2008, the "one-ticket" solution has been introduced also as regards a rail connection withWłocławek, as a "regional ticket". The same is planned for connection withGrudziądz.
Two bus depots serve to connect the city with other towns and cities in Poland.
As of 2008[update], asmall sport airfield exists in Toruń; however, a modernization of the airport is seriously considered with a number of investors interested in it. Independently of this,Bydgoszcz Ignacy Jan Paderewski Airport, located about 50 kilometres (31 miles) from Toruń city centre, serves the wholeBydgoszcz-Toruń metropolitan area, with a number of regular flights to European cities.
Although a medium-sized city, Toruń is the site of the headquarters of some of the largest companies in Poland, or at least of their subsidiaries. The official unemployment rate, as of September 2008[update], is 5.4%.
In 2006, construction of new plants owned bySharp Corporation and other companies of mainly Japanese origin has started in the neighboring community ofŁysomice – about 10 kilometres (6 miles) from city centre. The facilities under construction are located in a newly created special economic zone. As a result of cooperation of the companies mentioned above, a vast high-tech complex is to be constructed in the next few years, providing as many as 10,000 jobs (a prediction for[needs update]) at the cost of about 450 million euros. As of 2008[update], the creation of another special economic zone is being considered, this time inside city limits.
Toruń's city centre incorporates a large commercial district
Thanks to its architectural heritage Toruń is visited by more than 1.5 million tourists a year (1.6 million in 2007). This makes tourism an important branch of the local economy, although time spent in the city by individual tourists or the number of hotels, which can serve them, are still not considered satisfactory. Major investments in renovation of the city's monuments, building new hotels (including high-standard ones), improvement in promotion, as well as launching new cultural and scientific events and facilities, give very good prospects for Toruń's tourism.
Małe Garbary, a typical street in the Old Town of Toruń
In recent years Toruń has been a site of intense building construction investments, mainly residential and in its transportation network. The latter has been possible partly due to the use of European Union funds assigned for new member states. Toruń city county generates by far the highest number of new dwellings built each year among all Kuyavian-Pomeranian counties, both relative to its population as well as in absolute values. It has led to almost complete rebuilding of some districts. As of 2008[update], many major constructions are either under development or are to be launched soon – the value of some of them exceeding 100 million euros. They include a new speedway stadium, major shopping and entertainment centres, a commercial complex popularly called a "New Centre of Toruń", a music theater, a centre of contemporary art, hotels, office buildings, facilities for theNicolaus Copernicus University, roads and tram routes, sewage and fresh water delivery systems, residential projects, the possibility of a new bridge over the Vistula, and more. Construction of theA1 motorway and the BiT City fast metropolitan railway also directly affects the city. About 25,000 local firms are registered[when?] in Toruń.
Toruń has two drama theatres (Teatr im. Wilama Horzycy with three stages andTeatr Wiczy), two children's theatres (Baj Pomorski andZaczarowany Świat), two music theatres (Mała Rewia,Studencki Teatr Tańca), and numerous other theatre groups. The city hosts, among others events, the international theatre festival, "Kontakt", annually in May.
A building calledBaj Pomorski has recently been completely reconstructed. It is now one of the most modern cultural facilities in the city, with its front elevation in the shape of a gigantic chest of drawers. It is located at the south-east edge of the Old Town. Toruń has two cinemas including aCinema City, which has over 2,000 seats.
Over ten major museums document the history of Toruń and the region. Among others, the "House of Kopernik" and the accompanying museum commemorateNicolaus Copernicus and his revolutionary work, the university museum reveals the history of the city's academic past.
The Centre of Contemporary Art (Centrum Sztuki Współczesnej –CSW) opened in June 2008 and is one of the most important cultural facilities of this kind in Poland. The modern building is located in the very centre of the city, adjacent to the Old Town. The Toruń Symphonic Orchestra (formerly the Toruń Chamber Orchestra) is well-rooted in the Toruń cultural landscape.
Toruń is home to aplanetarium (located downtown) and anastronomical observatory (located in nearby village ofPiwnice). The latter boasts the largestradio telescope in Central Europe with a diameter of 32 m (104.99 ft), second only to theEffelsberg 100 m (328.08 ft) radio telescope.
Toruń is well known forgingerbread, a type ofpiernik often made in elaborate molds.Museum of Toruń Gingerbread is a large museum dedicated to it.[76] There are also several gingerbread workshops in the town that offer hands-on experiences for tourists, including the popularLiving Museum of Gingerbread. The 15-year-old composerFryderyk Chopin was smitten with Toruń gingerbread when he visited his godfather,Fryderyk Skarbek, there in the summer of 1825.
Over 30 elementary and primary schools and over ten high schools make up the educational base of Toruń. Besides these, students can also attend a handful of private schools.
The largest institution of higher education in Toruń,Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń, serves over 20,000 students and was founded in 1945, based on theToruń Scientific Society,Stefan Batory University in Wilno, andJan Kazimierz University in Lwów. The existence of a high-ranked and high-profiled university with so many students plays a great role the city's position and importance in general, as well as in creating an image of Toruń's streets and clubs filled with crowds of young people. It also has a serious influence on local economy.
Other public institutions of higher education:
Wyższe Seminarium Duchowne (a section of the Theological Faculty of the Nicolaus Copernicus University)
The Teacher Training College – Nauczycielskie Kolegium Języków Obcych (affiliated to the Nicolaus Copernicus University)
Six hospitals of various specializations provide medical service for Toruń itself, its surrounding area, and to the region in general. The two largest of these hospitals, recently run by the voivodeship, were to be taken over by Nicolaus Copernicus University and run as its clinical units. At least one of them was to change its status in 2008,. In addition, there are a number of other healthcare facilities in the city.
Honouring Toruń's sister relationship withPhiladelphia, Pennsylvania, the Bulwar Filadelfijski (Philadelphia Boulevard), a 2 km (1.2 mi) long street running mostly between Vistula River and walls of the Old Town and the boulevard itself, bears its name. The Ślimak Getyński is one of the lanes connecting Piłsudski Bridge / John Paul II Avenue with Philadelphia Boulevard at their downtown interchange. It honours the relationship with Göttingen, its name derived from the street's half-circular shape (Polish wordślimak meaning "snail").
Toruń also makes an appearance in the alternate history real-time strategy video gameCommand and Conquer: Red Alert; in the Soviet campaign of the game, the player is tasked on liquidating the city's inhabitants after the Soviet leadership discovers resistance fighters had aided escaped test subjects.
^"Główny Urząd Statystyczny" [Central Statistical Office] (in Polish). To search: Select "Miejscowości (SIMC)" tab, select "fragment (min. 3 znaki)" (minimum 3 characters), enter town name in the field below, click "WYSZUKAJ" (Search).
^Lakeberg, Beata (2012)."Thorn/Toruń".Online-Lexikon zur Kultur und Geschichte der Deutschen im östlichen Europa (in German). Retrieved7 November 2025.
^abcRymut, Kazimierz (1987).Nazwy miast Polski (in Polish). Wrocław, Poland: Zakład Narodowy im. Ossolińskich. p. 247.
^White, John Tahourdin; Riddle, Joseph Esmond (1898).A Latin-English Dictionary for the Use of Junior Students: Abridged from the Larger Work of White and Riddle (13th ed.). Boston, USA: Ginn and Company. p. 332.
^"Krzyżacy – założyciele Torunia" (Teutonic Knights — the founders of Thorn). (Internet Archive) Urząd Miasta Torunia. "The foundation charter for Thorn was signed on 28 December 1233 by the Grand Master of the Teutonic Order Hermann von Salza and the National Master for Prussia and the Slavonic Lands Hermann Balka. In that way Thorn was founded by the Teutonic Order and managed by the Knights until 1454." Retrieved 16 June 2013.
^abcGrzeszkiewicz-Kotlewska, Lidia (2002). "Zamek Władysława Jagiełły w Dybowie w świetle badań archeologicznych w latach 1998–2001".Rocznik Toruński (in Polish).29. Wydawnictwo NaukoweUniwersytetu Mikołaja Kopernika: 19.
^F. Kiryk, J. Ryś, Wielka Historia polski, t. II, 1320–1506, Kraków 1997, pp. 160–161.
^"Ruiny Zamku Krzyżackiego" [Remnants of the Teutonic Castle].Toruńskie Serwisy Miejskie. Urząd Miasta Torunia. 2017. Retrieved12 March 2017.
^Urząd Miasta Torunia (2012)."Krzyżacy – założyciele Torunia" [Teutonic Knights – the founders of town].Gotyk na dotyk. Archived fromthe original on 19 January 2012 – via Internet Archive.
^Górski, Karol (1949).Związek Pruski i poddanie się Prus Polsce: zbiór tekstów źródłowych (in Polish).Poznań: Instytut Zachodni. pp. 71–72.
^Kostkiewicz, Janina (2020). "Niemiecka polityka eksterminacji i germanizacji polskich dzieci w czasie II wojny światowej". In Kostkiewicz, Janina (ed.).Zbrodnia bez kary... Eksterminacja i cierpienie polskich dzieci pod okupacją niemiecką (1939–1945) (in Polish). Kraków:Uniwersytet Jagielloński,Biblioteka Jagiellońska. p. 56.
^"Miesięczna suma opadu".Normy klimatyczne 1991–2020 (in Polish). Institute of Meteorology and Water Management. Archived fromthe original on 9 January 2022. Retrieved22 January 2022.
^"Liczba dni z opadem >= 0,1 mm".Normy klimatyczne 1991–2020 (in Polish). Institute of Meteorology and Water Management. Archived fromthe original on 15 January 2022. Retrieved22 January 2022.
^"Średnia grubość pokrywy śnieżnej".Normy klimatyczne 1991–2020 (in Polish). Institute of Meteorology and Water Management. Archived fromthe original on 15 January 2022. Retrieved22 January 2022.
^"Średnia suma usłonecznienia (h)".Normy klimatyczne 1991–2020 (in Polish). Institute of Meteorology and Water Management. Archived fromthe original on 15 January 2022. Retrieved22 January 2022.
The list includes the 107 urban municipalities governed by acity mayor (prezydent miasta) instead of a town mayor (burmistrz) ·Cities with powiat rights are initalics · Voivodeship cities are inbold
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