Protectorate of Tonkin | |
|---|---|
| 1883–1945 1946–1949 | |
| Motto: Liberté, égalité, fraternité "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity" | |
| Anthem: "La Marseillaise" | |
| Great Seal of the Viceroy of Tonkin[1] Khâm sai đại thần quan phòng 欽差大臣關防 .svg) (Until 1897) | |
Indochine_fran%25C3%25A7aise_bpt6k11001779_67.jpg) Administrative divisions of Tonkin 1920 | |
| Status | Protectorate ofFrance (1883–1945) Constituent territory ofFrench Indochina (1887–1949) |
| Capital | Hanoi |
| Common languages | French,Vietnamese,Central Tai languages,Southwestern Tai languages,Hmongic languages,Mienic languages |
| Religion | Mahayana Buddhism Confucianism Taoism Catholicism Folk religion |
| Demonym | Tonkinese |
| Government | Absolute monarchy undercolonial administration |
| Resident-Superior | |
• 1886 | Paulin François Alexandre Vial |
• 1947–1948 | Yves Jean Digo |
| Kinh lược sứ (Viceroy of Tonkin) | |
• 1883–1885 | Nguyễn Hữu Độ (first) |
• 1890–1897 | Hoàng Cao Khải (last) |
| Legislature | None (rule by decree) House of Representatives (de jure advisory body) |
| Historical era | New Imperialism |
| 25 August 1883 | |
| 6 June 1884 | |
| September 1940 | |
| 25 August 1945 | |
• Creation of theProvisional Central Government of Vietnam | 1948 |
• Élysée Accords took effect on June 14; ratification by France in 1950, formally recognising the end of the protectorate over Vietnam[2] | 1949 |
| Population | |
• 1885 | 7,487,000[3] |
• 1939 | 11,509,000[3] |
| Currency | Vietnamese cash, French Indochinese piastre |
| Today part of | Vietnam China ∟Zhanjiang |
Tonkin (chữ Hán:東京), orBắc Kỳ (北圻), was a Frenchprotectorate encompassing modernNorthern Vietnam from 1883 to 1949. Like theFrench protectorate of Annam, Tonkin was still nominally ruled by the VietnameseNguyễn dynasty. In 1886, the French separated Tonkin from the Nguyễn imperial court inHuế by establishing the office of "Viceroy" (經略衙,Kinh lược nha).[4] However, on 26 July 1897, the position of Viceroy was abolished, officially making the Frenchresident-superior of Tonkin both the representative of the French colonial administration and the Nguyễn dynasty court in Huế, giving him the power to appoint localmandarins.[4] In 1887, Tonkin became a part of theUnion of Indochina.
In March 1945, the emperorBảo Đại rescinded thePatenôtre Treaty, ending the French protectorates overAnnam and Tonkin, establishing theEmpire of Vietnam, aJapanese-backed state.[5] Following thesurrender of Japan, endingWorld War II, theViệt Minh launched theAugust Revolution which led to theabdication of Bảo Đại and thedeclaration of independence of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam.
Tonkinwas briefly occupied by theChinese National Army before the French took over following theHo–Sainteny Agreement in March 1946. Aftereliminating virtually all nationalist oppositions,[6][7] the communist-led Việt Minhclashed with the French over control of the territory. On 27 May 1948, Tonkin and Annam were partly merged under theProvisional Central Government of Vietnam.[8] The French legally maintained the protectorate until they formally signed over sovereignty to the Bảo Đại and theState of Vietnam in 1950 after theÉlysée Accords took effect on 14 June 1949.[2]
After defeating the VietnameseNguyễn dynasty, the French colonisedSouthern Vietnam includingSaigon in 1862 and 1867. Their sovereignty over here was recognized by the Vietnamese in1874. Central and Northern Vietnam later became theFrench protectorates of Annam and Tonkin and French influence in the Indochina Peninsula strengthened. However unlike Cochinchina, these two territories were still parts of Vietnam legally. During theSino-French War (1884–85), the northernmost part of Vietnam,Tonkin (then considered a crucial foothold in Southeast Asia and a key to the Chinese market), wasinvaded by the French. After theTreaty of Huế (1883) with Vietnam and theTreaty of Tientsin (1885) with the ChineseQing dynasty, all of Vietnam was governed by the French.
During the French colonial administration, Vietnam was administratively divided into three different territories: Tonkin (in the north),Annam (in the centre), and the colony ofCochinchina (in the south). These territories were fairly arbitrary in their geographic extent as the vast majority of the Vietnamese regarded their country as a single land and minor resistance to French rule continued over the next 70 years to achieve an independent state. Annam and Tonkin were originally a single entity, theRésidence supérieure of Annam-Tonkin. On June 3, 1886, the Nguyễn emperorĐồng Khánh delegated all of his powers in Tonkin to aKinh lược sứ (經略使, equivalent ofViceroy), who acted under French supervision. On May 9, 1889, the Résidence supérieure of Annam-Tonkin was abolished, withAnnam and Tonkin being separated in two Résidences supérieures, each subordinated to the governor-general ofFrench Indochina. On July 26, 1897, Governor-GeneralPaul Doumer had EmperorThành Thái abolish the post ofKinh lược sứ.TheNguyễn dynasty still nominally reigned over Tonkin; it was nowde facto under direct French rule.[9]
During French rule,Hanoi was made capital of Tonkin and, in 1901, of the wholeFrench Indochina. Cities in Tonkin saw significant infrastructure and economic development under the French, such as the development of the port ofHaiphong and construction of theTrans-Indochinois Railway linking Hanoi to Saigon. Under French economic plans, mines yielding gold, silver, and tin as well as the farming of rice, corn, and tea powered Tonkin's economy. The imports included rice, iron goods, flour, wine,opium and cotton goods. Industrialization later led to the opening of factories producing textiles andceramics for export throughout the French Empire. French cultural influence on Tonkin was also significant as French became the primary language of education, government, trade and media and heavyCatholic missionary activity resulted in almost 10% of the population identifying as Catholic by the 1940s. Prominent buildings in Hanoi were also constructed during the period of French rule, such as theHanoi Opera House and theHanoi University of Technology.
French colonial administration lasted until March 9, 1945, during Japanese occupation (1941–1945). Although French administration was allowed during Japanese occupation as a puppet government, Japan briefly took full control of Vietnam in March 1945 under theEmpire of Vietnam and Tonkin became the site of theVietnamese Famine of 1945 during this period.[10] At the end of the war, the north of Vietnam (including Tonkin) saw a sphere of influence by China while the south was briefly occupied by the British for French forces to regroup and regain control.Harry Truman at thePotsdam Conference, stated an intention to hand the region back to French rule, a sharp contrast toFranklin D. Roosevelt's strong opposition to colonialism and commitment to support the Viet Minh. However, after the Japanese withdrew from Vietnam,Ho Chi Minh proclaimed the establishment of theDemocratic Republic of Vietnam inBa Đình Square. Hanoi was laterreoccupied by the French and conflict between theViet Minh and France broke out into theFirst Indochina War.
As the French sought to establish a coherent government in Vietnam as an alternative toHo Chi Minh, Tonkin was merged in 1948 into theProvisional Central Government of Vietnam, which was replaced the next year by theState of Vietnam, following the reunification with Cochinchina.[11] After the French defeat at theBattle of Dien Bien Phu in Western Tonkin in 1954, the Communist state ofNorth Vietnam was formed, consisting of Tonkin and northern Annam.
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Tonkin was a component of French Indochina. It was ade facto French colony despite being a protectorate on paper. The British Naval Intelligence Division wrote during World War II that "at first the native political organization was maintained, but in 1897 the office of the viceroy, representing the king of Annam in Tonkin, was abolished, and since then other changes have further weakened the influence of the native government."[12] Formally the four protectorates of French Indochina were ruled by their respective monarchs, but in fact the protectorates were all under the close control of the French senior residents.[13] As the governor-general of French IndochinaPierre Pasquier stated: "The King reigns but the Resident superior rules."[14][13] The effective power in the protectorate was in the hands of the resident-superior with both the monarch and the local high officials playing a subordinate role to his office.[13]
Tonkin was administered by a French resident similar to those in Annam, Laos, and Cambodia,aconseil du protectorat composed of important officials and representatives from the chambers of agriculture and commerce, assisted the resident in performing his duties.
On 31 July 1898 thepresident of France,Félix Faure, issued a decree that established a central bank for the entirety of French Indochina and that this bank would set the federal French Indochinese budget, on the same day the French president issued a decree that established a budget for the government of Tonkin.[15] Furthermore, the French president also decreed that the budget of Tonkin would be financed through direct tax revenue collected in the territory as opposed to onlyindirect taxes.[15] This decree also meant that the treasury of the Nguyễn dynasty was abolished and all finances to be directly managed by the French.[15] The resident-superior was assisted by various agencies such as the Tokin Protectorate Council, the Tokin Chamber of Commerce, the Tonkin Chamber of Agriculture, and the House of People's Representatives.[16] Despite its name the House of People's Representatives was not democratically elected but was composed of appointed Vietnamese elites and it only discussed issues related to taxation rather than legislation.[16]
Tonkin was made up of 23 provinces, subdivided intophu orhuyen, cantons, and communes.[12] Local administration was in the hands of Vietnamese mandarins, although they were appointed by the resident rather than the emperor as in Annam.[12] The smallest unit of administration, the commune, was overseen by two councils: thetoc bieu, and the mandarin-dominatedky muc with the authority to veto decisions of thetoc bieu.[12] Hanoi and Haiphong had municipal councils appointed by the governor-general of Indochina.[12] Each province was headed by "Công sứ" (公使), a French resident-minister, who was also assisted by a number of different agencies such as the Resident-Minister's Office, the Provincial Council, etc.[16]
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Media related toFrench protectorate of Tonkin at Wikimedia Commons
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21°00′00″N106°00′00″E / 21.0000°N 106.0000°E /21.0000; 106.0000
