Toltec Empire Altepetl Tollan[1]
674 (disputed)[2][obsolete source]–1122 (disputed)
Status	disputed
Capital	Tollan-Xicocotitlan
Common languages	Nahuatl,Mixtec,Totonac,Otomi,Pame, others
Religion	Toltec religion
Government	Monarchy
Tlatoani (seeList of rulers)
• c. 6th-8th century	Chalchiuhtlanetzin or Mixcoamatzatzin (first)
• c. 10th-11th century	Topiltzin, Tecpancaltzin orHuemac (last)
Historical era	Classic/Post Classic
• Toltecs arrive at Mam-he-mi, and rename it Tollan	674 (disputed)[2][obsolete source]
• Topiltzin Ce Acatl Quetzalcoatl goes into exile and leaves forTlapallan	947 (disputed)
• Abandonment of Tollan-Xicocotitlan	1122 (disputed)
Population
• 1000	4.5 million[3]
Preceded by Succeeded by Teotihuacan Calakmul Mezcala culture Otomí people Chupícuaro League of Mayapan Yopitzinco Totonacapan Azcapotzalco Acolhua Ecatepec Chalco (altépetl)
The status of theToltecs as an empire has been disputed Whether the Tollan dominated or even directly influenced the Yucatan area has also been disputed

TheToltec Empire,^[4]Toltec Kingdom^[5] orAltepetl Tollan^[1] was a political entity in pre-Hispanic Mexico. It existed through the classic and post-classic periods ofMesoamerican chronology, but gained most of its power in the post-classic. During this time its sphere of influence reached as far away as theYucatan Peninsula.

The capital city of this empire wasTollan-Xicocotitlan,^[6] while other important cities includedTulancingo^[7] andHuapalcalco.

Oral traditions about the origin of Toltecs were collected by historians likeMariano de Veytia^[8] andCarlos María de Bustamante^[9] in the early 19th century. According to said accounts, there was a city named Tlachicatzin in a country ruled by the city of Huehuetlapallan, whose inhabitants called the people of Tlachicatzin "Toltecah", for their fame as dexterous artisans.^[8] In 583, led by two notables named Chalcaltzin and Tlacamihtzin, the Toltecah rebelled against their overlords in Huehuetlapallan^[9] and after thirteen years of resistance they ended up fleeing Tlachicatzin.^[8] Some of the Toltecah later founded a new settlement called Tlapallanconco in 604.^[9]

These narrations about the origin of the Toltecs have been disputed by archaeologists and historians likeManuel Gamio,^[10]Enrique Florescano^[10] andLaurette Séjourné;^[11] who had identified the Toltec city of Tollan withTeotihuacan, although this hypothesis has been criticized by many scholars, most notably historianMiguel León-Portilla.^[12]

According to theAnales de Cuauhtitlan, the Toltec people came to be in the year 1-rabbit (674), the year they set up atheocracy to govern themselves, which was later reformed into a monarchy around the year 700^[2] with the enthronement of Mimixcoamazatzin.^[13] (Some authors such as John Bierhorst have translated theAnales de Cuauhtitlan as stating that the Toltecs arrived in Tula in 726 and created their monarchy in 752).^[14]

The dynastic history of the Toltecs was recorded by several pre-Columbian^[which?] and Colonial sources, although there are contradictions in most of them. Some sources say that a man named Huemac^[15] was the leader of the Toltecs when they arrived at Tula, while others begin the list of Toltec rulers, ortlatoani, with Chalchiutlanetzin,^[16] Mixcoamatzatzin,^[15] or evenCē Ācatl Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl.^[17]

Historians likeAlfredo Chavero investigated the numerous proposed lists of Toltec rulers presented in the works of authors likeFernando de Alva Ixtlilxóchitl andJuan de Torquemada, and in anonymous sources like theCodex Chimalpopoca. According to Chavero, his research led him to conclude that most of the traditional recounts of the Toltec royalty are not reliable because they were recorded in a style similar to the medievalChansons de geste,^[2] something that became evident once he realised that most of the reigns of the Toltec monarchs lasted 52 years, which is exactly the duration of the 52 year-long cycle of theMesoamerican calendars,^[2] known in nahuatl asXiuhmolpilli. Therefore, Chavero concluded, that most of the traditional Toltec royal accounts and exploits must be legendary in nature.^[2]

According to one of those legends, during the reign ofTecpancaltzin Iztaccaltzin, a Toltec man named Papantzin invented a type of fermented syrup made from themaguey plant. He sent his daughterXochitl with a bowl of the fermented syrup, today known aspulque, as a gift for the Tlatoani of the Toltecs (in some versions Papantzin would go along with Xochitl). Tecpancaltzin fell in love with the messenger, who kept coming with more bowls of pulque from time to time. After some more visits, the tlatoani granted lands and nobility status to Papantzin, and eventually married Xochitl, who would give birth to a boy named Meconetzin (Child of the Maguey innahuatl), who became prince of Tollan.^[18]

Between 900 and 950,^[19] Tollan underwent a major urban redevelopment as the original urban center, today known asTula Chico (Little Tula), was largely abandoned in favor of a new district, where most of the main religious and political buildings, like thePalacio Quemado (Burnt Palace), were eventually located. This new district is today known asTula Grande (Great Tula).^[20] Also by this time, Tollan had become a magnet for migrants from the surrounding areas, giving the city a large and ethnically diverse population, with theNonoalca andChichimeca being the most important groups in the city.^{[17][better source needed]}

According to theAnales de Cuauhtitlan, the city of Tollan-Xicocotitlan was ruled by the priest-kingCē Ācatl Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl from 923 to 947.^[15] This ruler was born in the year 895^[21][5] at Michatlauhco, a place which according to Mexican archaeologistWigberto Jiménez Moreno could be located near the present-day town ofTepoztlán, in the Mexican state ofMorelos.^[22]

Quetzalcoatl was regarded as a wise and benevolent ruler, who made Tollan a "prosperous city in which their inhabitants -the Toltecs- were endowed with great qualities".^[23] At the same time he was regarded as a holy and pious man, who engaged regularly in acts of penance.^[23] Cē Ācatl Topiltzin preached against the practice ofhuman sacrifices, arguing that thesupreme deity whose name he took for himself wasn't pleased with the practice of ritual killings.^[24]

According toBernardino de Sahagún,^[25] one day, Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl was visited by an elderly man (said to beTezcatlipoca in disguise^[23]) who offered him a "medicine" that would make him younger. This medicine was just a bowl ofpulque, and after tasting it, the king invited his sister, the priestess Quetzalpetlatl, to drink with him, with both getting drunk soon after.^[26] Because of their drunkenness, both siblings forgot their sacred duties and acted disgracefully,^[23] damaging their reputations. After this humiliation, Quetzalcoatl left Tollan in 947, and traveled to the east, to the mythical land ofTlapallan, which according to tradition was located on the coast of theGulf of Mexico.^[21] There, Quetzalcoatl took a canoe and immolated himself.^[23]

Some authors, like Mexican historianVicente Riva Palacio, argue that Quetzalcoatl died earlier, in 931; and that said event would trigger political instability in Tollan, eventually leading to an important migration of Toltecs to other parts of Mesoamerica around 981, especially to theYucatan Peninsula, where they would mainly settle at the city ofUxmal.^[27] Regardless of the exact date of Quetzalcoatl's death, traditional accounts indicate that at the end of the tenth century, a religious war broke between members of the cult of Tezcatlipoca and supporters of Quetzalcoatl.^[5][28] The adherents of Quetzalcoatl didn't favour large-scale human sacrifices, which were largely suppressed by Ce Acatl Topiltzin during his reign, while the adherents of Tezcatlipoca regarded them as an essential part of their religion.^[5] Also, the supporters of Quetzalcoatl and his reforms were mostly of Nonoalca background while the supporters of the cult of Tezcatlipoca were mostly of Chichimeca background.^[28]

According toDiego Durán, the conflict was brief, but eventually a second war between the two groups broke out.^[5] This war lasted from 1046 to 1110, and ended with the defeat of the followers of Quetzalcoatl. Because of the violence, many of those who supported Ce Acatl Topiltzin fled Tollan, with a sizeable portion of these exiles heading towards the Maya cultural area. According to Mexican archaeologistRomán Piña Chan, the cult of Quetzalcoatl (known asKukulkan in Yucatan) was introduced in the region by theItza around 987 AD.^[29] The Itza were a group of mixedPutún Maya and Toltec descent, which had welcomed immigrants from Tollan time moving into theYucatán Peninsula, and had adopted the religious teachings of the Toltecs.^[29]

As they traveled southwards, some followers of Ce Acatl Topiltzin seem to have followed his example and adopted the name "Quetzalcoatl" and its Maya equivalents, "Kukulkan" and "Q'uq'umatz", for themselves.^[30][31] According to Mexican historianMiguel León-Portilla, these new "Quetzalcoatl" leaders often led their own followers into military actions against the Mayan peoples.^[30] The exploits of these personages had become source of misunderstandings and confusion for researchers over centuries, as they are often confused with Ce Acatl Topiltzin himself.^[31]

The ethno-religious conflicts between theNonoalca and theChichimeca, along with the greatfamine that affected Tollan between 1070 and 1077,^[5] led to a series of important migrations from Tollan to other parts of Mesoamerica in the late 11th century and early 12th century.^[28] One of these groups of Toltec exiles eventually took over the city ofCholula, in the present-day Mexican state ofPuebla, around 1200^[32]

According toDurán, in 1115, tribes from the north (probablyChichimecas,Otomi^[5] orHuastecs^[28]) attacked the domains of Tollan. After a series of brutal battles at the villages ofNextalpan andTexcalapan, in which both sides took and sacrificed numerous prisoners, the Toltecs were defeated in 1116.^[5] After this defeat,Huemac, the priest-king of Tollan, abandoned the city along with other Toltecs^[24] and headed south, to the city ofXaltocan, in theValley of Mexico.^[5] Soon, the king would be abandoned by his closest followers, who chose a man called Nauhyotl as their leader;^[5] while the majority of the Toltecs would split in smaller groups and begin their diaspora across Mesoamerica.^[28][24]

In 1122, shortly after being betrayed by his followers, Huemac hanged himself inChapultepec,^[24][5] and by 1150,^[19] Tula was virtually abandoned. Some Toltecs would remain around the ruins of their former capital, where they would be under the rule ofCulhuacán, a nearby city-state.^[28] After the fall and abandonment of Tollan in the 12th century, the former Toltec dominions would be ruled by numerous smaller city-states, which are known asaltepetl innahuatl, most of which would be ruled by descendants (both real and self-proclaimed) of the Toltec nobility.^[28] Toltec heritage became the standard of the nobility in most of Mesoamerica. Because of this, many rulers of later kingdoms and empires would claim Toltec lineage as a way to legitimize their power,^[30] including theAztec emperors, theMixtec kings in Oaxaca, and theK'iche' andKakchiquel rulers in Guatemala.^[33]

Pre-Columbian and Colonial documents describe the Toltec rulers, but most of those accounts are legendary in nature, and therefore not historically reliable.^[2] Some lists include figures such asCe Acatl Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl and queenXochitl as rulers, but most of them omit them.

According toFernando de Alva Ixtlilxóchitl, these would be the Toltec rulers:^[16]

According to the author of theAnónimo Mexicano, all but one of the rulers of Tollan ruled for 52 years, and the only exception had instead produced a council interregnum after her short rule. Thus, the author names the following Toltec rulers:^[34]

Francisco Javier Clavijero^[16] provides a very similar list, modifying only the starting and ending years and using Ixtlilxochitl's version of theAnónimo's names, while using an alternative name for the final ruler:

According to theAnales de Cuauhtitlan,^[13] these would be the Toltec rulers, though alternative periods may be attained by adding a calendar cycle of 52 years to each date:

TheMemorial Breve^[35] mentions only two Toltec rulers, and makes little note of the first one:

• All dates are AD

The status of slaves in the Toltec world is not well-documented. It is known, however, that theHuastec and others were carried weeping into Tula, possibly as victims for sacrificial ceremonies or as doomed chattel.^{[36][verification needed]}

Most of Tula was set up in a grid plan. The buildings were made of stone with an adobe finish. TheAtlantes of Tula are representations of the godTlahuizcalpantecuhtli in warrior attire which were used as columns to hold up the roof of the great room in the god's temple.^[37]

Tula from pyramid B

Some of the most famous Toltec sculptures are the Atlanteans of Tula. These monoliths measure just over 4.5 meters high. They are carved in stone basalt, and are representations of the Toltec godTlahuizcalpantecuhtli in warrior attire. They are clothed in butterfly breastplates. Their weapons areatlatls,darts, knives of flint, and curved weapon that are characteristic of the warrior representations in the Toltec culture.^[37]

The monumental Atlanteans are at the top of the Temple of Tlahuizcalpantecutli (also called "Morning Star"), wherefrom which all the main plaza can be seen; these sculptures are characterized by their large size and detail.

The Toltecs founded colonies in Veracruz.^[36]

One of the most controversial topics involving the Toltecs is what their relationship withChichen Itza was. The similarities between the two cities has raised several hypotheses about the nature of the links between the two, although none of them have the full support of the specialists in the field. In the 19th century, French archaeologistDésiré Charnay was the first person who pointed out that the main plazas of Tula and Chichen Itza were similar, a fact that led him to postulate that the city could have been conquered by Toltecs led by Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl, who Charnay referred asKukulkan.^[38] This hypothesis was defended in the 20th century by Herbert Joseph Spinden, an art historian who became obsessed with the idea and often used pseudo-historical sources to back his claim about a conquest of the Itza Maya by Quetzalcoatl.^[39]

The conquest hypothesis of Charnay and Spinden has been largely abandoned in modern archaeology as more evidence suggests that instead of a conquest of Chichen Itza by the Toltecs, the Itza people had already embraced Toltec teachings before moving to Yucatan;^[29] also, according to Mexican historianMiguel León-Portilla, many of the references to leaders with the name "Quetzalcoatl", "Kukulkan" or "Q'uq'umatz" in the Maya sources may not even refer to Cē Ācatl Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl himself, but to some of his followers and their disciples who also took the name of theFeathered Serpent deity for themselves.^[30][31]

Chichen Itza would eventually become the largest city in Yucatan with a population of at least 50,000 people.^[40]Almost as many people as lived inCoba during the classic period.^[41]

In the mid-eighth century,^[42] the Classic Maya civilizationbegan to collapse. Around 925, about the same the time in which the Toltecs began to migrate to the Maya area, most of the major Maya cities in the Yucatán Peninsula had already been abandoned due to food shortages and peasant revolts^[43] Some Maya cities in the Yucatan peninsula at the time were:

• Uxmal
• Jaina (a small city on an island in marshland on the coast of the gulf of Mexico)
• Xtampak
• Izamal
• Dzibilchaltun
• Edzna
• Calakmul
• Sayil
• Kabah
• Muyil
• Zama
• Mayapan
• Ek' Balam (capitol of the Kingdom of Talol^[44])

TheChupícuaro culture was important due to the influence it had in the area. It is possible it spread to southern United States around 500 BCE. There are theories that the first Guanajuato inhabitants belonged to this culture.^{[45][failed verification]}

The city of Chupícuaro was inhabited between 800 BCE and 1200 CE. Chupícuaro developed in a vast territory in,Guanajuato,Michoacán,Guerrero,Mexico State,Hidalgo,Colima,Nayarit,Querétaro andZacatecas.

The Toltec were skilled in battle, ferocious and highly trained. A standing army, garrisons, forts and reserve units comprised a formidable weapon against inhabitants of regions coveted by the Toltec and against enemies. Because of their skill and their bravery in battle, the Toltec were able to instill enough awe and respect among their neighbors that cities such as Tula could be built without heavy defenses incorporated into their design.Coyote, Jaguar, and eagle were some of the higher ranks of the Toltec military.^[46]

The upper ranks of the Toltec army wore cotton armor, heavily padded to deflect enemy, arrows and spears, with breastplates, in the form of coyotes, jaguars or eagles if the warrior belonged to the order of one of these animal totems. A round shield was carried into battle, and the swords were fastened with belts. A short kilt protected the lower half of the torso, and the legs and ankles were covered with sandals and straps. Quetzal plumes decorated warriors' helmets, and skins, plumage and other materials probably were used as emblems of the particular god or order that they served. The fact that the warriors depicted wore nose ornaments indicates that they were of noble rank. Some of the warriors wore beards.^{[47][verification needed]}

• Bolt, Jutta, Robert Inklaar, Herman de Jong and Jan Luiten van Zanden (2018)."Maddison Project Database, version 2018".{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

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