Tokusatsu (特撮,lit. 'special filming') is a Japanese term forlive-action films or television programs that make heavy use of practicalspecial effects. Credited to special effects directorEiji Tsuburaya,tokusatsu mainly refers toscience fiction,war,fantasy, orhorror media featuring such technology but is also occasionally dubbed a genre itself. Its contemporary use originated in theJapanese mass media around 1958 to explain special effects in an easy-to-understand manner and was popularized during the "first monster boom" (1966–1968). Prior to the monster boom, it was known in Japan astokushu gijutsu (特殊技術,lit. 'special technology') or shortenedtokugi (特技,lit. 'special technique').[1]
Subgenres of‹See RfD›tokusatsu includekaiju such as theGodzilla andGamera series;superhero such as theKamen Rider andMetal Hero series;Kyodai Hero likeUltraman, andDenkou Choujin Gridman; andmecha likeGiant Robo andSuper Robot Red Baron. Some‹See RfD›tokusatsu television programs combine several of these subgenres, for example, theSuper Sentai series.
Tokusatsu is one of the most popular forms of Japanese entertainment, but only a small proportion oftokusatsu films and television programs are widely known outside of Japan. Nevertheless, certain properties have attained popularity outside of Japan;Godzilla featured in popular American-made movies.
‹See RfD›Tokusatsu has origins in earlyJapanese theater, specifically inkabuki (with its action and fight scenes) and in‹See RfD›bunraku, which utilized some of the earliest forms of special effects, specificallypuppetry.[citation needed]Japanese cinema pioneerShōzō Makino is credited as the founding father oftokusatsu techniques, having directed severaljidaigeki films starringMatsunosuke Onoe that featuredspecial effects.[2] Makino's effects work inspired filmmakerYoshirō Edamasa to employ such technology in his own movies, notablyJourney to the West (1917) andThe Great Buddha Arrival (1934).[2]
After researching the special effects featured inKing Kong (1933),Eiji Tsuburaya began to developtokusatsu and had his breakthrough onPrincess Kaguya (1935) andThe Daughter of the Samurai (1937).[3] Modern‹See RfD›tokusatsu, however, did not begin to take shape until the late 1940s.[4]
Tsuburaya and the directorIshirō Honda became the driving forces behind 1954'sGodzilla. Tsuburaya, inspired by the American filmKing Kong, formulated many of the techniques that would become staples of the genre, such as so-calledsuitmation—the use of a human actor in a costume to play a giant monster—combined with the use of miniatures and scaled-down city sets.Godzilla forever changed the landscape of Japanese science fiction, fantasy, and cinema by creating a uniquely Japanese vision in a genre typically dominated by American cinema.[5] This film also helped Tsuburaya's employerToho establish itself as the most successful effects company in the world.[6]
Godzilla kickstarted the‹See RfD›kaiju genre in Japan, creating the "Monster Boom", which remained extremely popular for several decades, with characters such as the aforementioned Godzilla, Gamera andKing Ghidorah leading the market.[7] However, in 1957Shintoho produced the first film serial featuring the superhero characterSuper Giant, signaling a shift in popularity that favored masked heroes over giant monsters called the "Henshin Boom" started byKamen Rider in 1971, though giant monsters, aliens and humanoid creatures dubbedlit. 'strange person"' or'怪人' or'kaijin' remained an integral part of the genre. Along with theanimeAstro Boy, theSuper Giant serials had a profound effect on the world of‹See RfD›tokusatsu. The following year,Moonlight Mask premiered, the first of numerous televised superhero dramas that would make up one of the most popular‹See RfD›tokusatsu subgenres.[8] Created byKōhan Kawauchi, he followed up its success with the‹See RfD›tokusatsu superhero showsSeven Color Mask (1959) andMessenger of Allah (1960), both starring a youngSonny Chiba.
These original productions preceded the first color-television‹See RfD›tokusatsu series,Ambassador Magma andUltraman, which heralded theKyodai Hero subgenre, wherein a regular-sized protagonist grows to larger proportions to fight equally large monsters.[9] Popular‹See RfD›tokusatsu superhero shows in the 1970s includedKamen Rider (1971),Warrior of Love Rainbowman (1972),Super Sentai (1975, trademarked in 1979) andSpider-Man (1978).
Tokusatsu is recognized for its heavy use of miniature sets, especially in the Kyodai Hero subgenre. Miniatures are placed from the camera's perspective to create the illusion that the characters are larger than they are.[10]
Suitmation (スーツメーション,Sūtsumēshon) is the term used to describe the process in‹See RfD›tokusatsu movies and television programs used to portray a monster using suit acting. The exact origin of the term remains unknown. At the least, it was used to promote the Godzilla suit fromThe Return of Godzilla.[citation needed]
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The many productions of‹See RfD›tokusatsu series have general themes common throughout different groups.
Kaiju (怪獣,kaijū, literally "mysterious beast") productions primarily feature monsters, or giant monsters (大怪獣,daikaijū). Such series includeUltraman, theGodzilla film series, theGamera series, theDaimajin series, and films such asMothra,The War of the Gargantuas, andThe X from Outer Space (宇宙大怪獣ギララ,Uchu Daikaijū Girara).
Kaijin (怪人, literally "mysterious person") productions primarily feature supervillains as their central character. This includes films such asThe Invisible Avenger,Half Human,The H-Man,The Secret of the Telegian, andThe Human Vapor.
Since about 1960, several long-running television series have combined various other themes.Tsuburaya Productions has had theUltraman Series starting withUltra Q andUltraman in 1966.P Productions began their foray into‹See RfD›tokusatsu in 1966 with the seriesAmbassador Magma. They also had involvement in theLion-Maru series which concluded in November 2006.
Toei Company has several series that fall under theirToei Superheroes category of programming, starting in 1958 with the film series,Moonlight Mask. Then, they produced several other long-running series, starting withShotaro Ishinomori'sKamen Rider Series in 1971, theSuper Sentai series in 1975, theMetal Hero Series in 1982, and theToei Fushigi Comedy Series in 1981. Toei also produced several other television series based on Ishinomori's works, includingAndroid Kikaider andKikaider 01,Robot Detective,Inazuman andInazuman Flash, andKaiketsu Zubat. Toei was also involved in theSpider-Man television series, which influenced their subsequent Super Sentai series. In 2003,TV Asahi began broadcasting theSuper Sentai andKamen Rider series in a one-hour block airing each week known asSuper Hero Time.Toho, the creators ofGodzilla, also had their hands in creating theChouseishin Series of programs from 2003 to 2006 and theZone Fighter franchise.
In 2006,Keita Amemiya'sGaro, a mature late-night tokusatsu drama, was released, starting a franchise composed of several television series and films. Other mature late-night series followed, including a revival ofLion-Maru inLion-Maru G, theDaimajin Kanon television series (based on theDaimajin film series), andShougeki Gouraigan!! (also created by Amemiya).
Various movies classified as‹See RfD›tokusatsu can includedisaster movies andscience fiction films. These includeWarning from Space (宇宙人東京に現わる,Uchūjin Tōkyō ni arawaru, Spacemen Appear in Tokyo) (1956),The Three Treasures (日本誕生,Nippon Tanjō),Invasion of the Neptune Men (宇宙快速船,Uchū Kaisokusen, High Speed Spaceship),The Last War (世界大戦争,Sekai Daisensō, The Great World War),The Green Slime (ガンマー第3号 宇宙大作戦,Ganmā daisan gō: uchū daisakusen, Ganma 3 Space Mission),Submersion of Japan (日本沈没,Nihon Chinbotsu, Japan Sinks),The War in Space (惑星大戦争,Wakusei Daisensō, War of the Planets),Virus (復活の日,Fukkatsu no Hi, Day of Resurrection),Bye-Bye Jupiter (さよならジュピター,Sayonara Jupitā), andSamurai Commando: Mission 1549 (戦国自衛隊1549,Sengoku Jieitai 1549, Sengoku Self-Defense Forces 1549).
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Non-traditional‹See RfD›tokusatsu films and television programs may not use conventional special effects or may not star human actors. Though suitmation typifies‹See RfD›tokusatsu, some productions may usestop-motion to animate their monsters instead, for exampleMajin Hunter Mitsurugi in 1973. TV shows may use traditional‹See RfD›tokusatsu techniques, but are cast with puppets or marionettes:Uchuusen Silica (1960);Ginga Shonen Tai (1963);Kuchuu Toshi 008 (1969); andGo Nagai'sX Bomber (1980). Some‹See RfD›tokusatsu may employ animation in addition to its live-action components:Tsuburaya Productions'Dinosaur Expedition Team Bornfree (1976),Dinosaur War Izenborg (1977) andPro-Wrestling Star Aztekaiser (1976).
As the popularity of‹See RfD›tokusatsu increased in Japan, severalfan film projects have been produced over the years.Hideaki Anno,Yoshiyuki Sadamoto,Takami Akai, andShinji Higuchi set up a fan-based group called Daicon Film, which they renamedGainax in 1985 and turned into an animation studio. Besides anime sequences, they also produced a series of‹See RfD›tokusatsu shorts parodying monster movies and superhero shows. These productions includeSwift Hero Noutenki (1982),Patriotic Squadron Dai-Nippon (1983),Return of Ultraman (1983) andThe Eight-Headed Giant Serpent Strikes Back (1985).
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‹See RfD›Tokusatsu techniques have spread outside Japan due to the popularity ofGodzilla films.
Godzilla, King of the Monsters! first appeared in English in 1956. Rather than a simple dub of the Japanese-language original, this work represented an entirely re-edited version that restructured the plot to incorporate a new character played by a native English-speaking actor,Raymond Burr.Ultraman gained popularity whenUnited Artists dubbed it for American audiences in the 1960s.
In 2002,4Kids Entertainment bought the rights toUltraman Tiga, but simply produced adub of the Japanese footage, broadcast on theFoxBox. And in 2009,Adness Entertainment took 2002'sKamen Rider Ryuki and turned it intoKamen Rider: Dragon Knight, which began broadcast onThe CW4Kids in 2009. It won the firstDaytime Emmy for "Outstanding Stunt Coordination" for its original scenes.[11][12]
In 2023, GMA Network releasedVoltes V: Legacy, an adaptation of the originalVoltes V, which has used special effects and CGI heavily reminiscent of those found in traditional tokusatsu shows, with some western influences added. In 2006, YTVMonster Warriors used CGI for the monsters with humor in the show.
In 1961, England-based filmmakers produced the Godzilla-style film,Gorgo, which used the same situation technique as the Godzilla films. That same year,Saga Studios inDenmark made another Godzilla-style giant monster film,Reptilicus, bringing its monster to life using a marionette on a miniature set. In 1967, South Korea produced its monster movie titledYonggary. In 1975,Shaw Brothers produced a superhero film calledThe Super Inframan, based on the huge success of Ultraman and Kamen Rider there. The film starredDanny Lee in the title role. Although there were several similar superhero productions in Hong Kong,The Super Inframan came first. With help from Japanese special effects artists under Sadamasa Arikawa, they also produced a Japanese-styled monster movie,The Mighty Peking Man, in 1977.
Concurrent with their work onSuperhuman Samurai Syber-Squad, DIC attempted an original concept based on the popularity ofPower Rangers in 1994'sTattooed Teenage Alien Fighters from Beverly Hills. In 1998, a video from anattemptedPower Rangers-styled adaptation ofSailor Moon surfaced, combining original footage of American actresses with original animated sequences.
Saban also attempted to make their own unique‹See RfD›tokusatsu series entitledMystic Knights of Tir Na Nog, set in medievalIreland and featured four, later five knights who transform using the power of the elements (for the most part) at they protected their kingdom from evil. Saban had also produced the live-actionTeenage Mutant Ninja Turtles seriesNinja Turtles: The Next Mutation, which was known in the turtles' fandom for introducing a female turtle exclusive to that series calledVenus de Milo and eliminating the fact that the other turtles were brothers. The show mostly featured actors in costumes, but featured similar choreographed fights like other‹See RfD›tokusatsu shows.
Also, like other Tokusatsu Productions, the SyndicatedBig Wolf on Campus and Nickelodeon'sAnimorphs are also described as "American Tokusatsu" due to the techniques they employed. Fujiyama Ichiban is a 2013 web series shot inLos Angeles.
All the other Tokusatsu shows in YTV'sMonster Warriors were shot inBarrie,Ontario, Canada. They used CGI for the monsters.
In the 2000s, production companies in other East Asian countries began producing their own original‹See RfD›tokusatsu-inspired television series:Thailand'sSport Ranger andSouth Korea'sErexion in 2006; thePhilippines'Zaido: Pulis Pangkalawakan (itself a sanctioned spinoff of Toei'sSpace Sheriff Shaider) in 2007;[13]China'sArmor Hero (Chinese:铠甲勇士;pinyin:Kǎi Jiǎ Yǒng Shì) in 2008,Battle Strike Team: Giant Saver (Chinese:巨神战击队;pinyin:Jùshén zhàn jí duì) in 2012,Metal Kaiser (Chinese:五龙奇剑士;pinyin:Wǔ Lóng Qí Jiàn Shì); andIndonesia'sBima Satria Garuda which began in 2013.[14][15]
On July the 1st, 2019,Vietnam's Transform Studio co-operating with Dive Into Eden announced their own original‹See RfD›tokusatsu series,Mighty Guardian (Vietnamese:Chiến Thần). The first season in the series isMighty Guardian: Lost Avian (Vietnamese:Chiến Thần Lạc Hồng), usingVietnamese Mythologies as the main concept.[16][17][18][19]
Kaiju and‹See RfD›tokusatsu films, notablyWarning from Space (1956), sparkedStanley Kubrick's interest in science fiction films and influenced2001: A Space Odyssey (1968). According to his biographerJohn Baxter, despite their "clumsy model sequences, the films were often well-photographed in colour ... and their dismal dialogue was delivered in well-designed and well-lit sets."[20]
Steven Spielberg citedGodzilla as an inspiration forJurassic Park (1993), specificallyGodzilla, King of the Monsters! (1956), which he grew up watching.[21] During its production, Spielberg describedGodzilla as "the most masterful of all the dinosaur movies because it made you believe it was really happening."[22]Godzilla also influenced the Spielberg filmJaws (1975).[23][24]
Japanese‹See RfD›tokusatsu movies also influenced one of the firstvideo games,Spacewar! (1961), inspiring its science fiction theme. According to the game's programmer Martin Graetz, "we would be off to one ofBoston's seedier cinemas to view the latest trash fromToho" as Japanese studios "churned out a steady diet of cinematic junk food of whichRodan andGodzilla are only the best-known examples."[25]
In 1998, a Brazilian webcomic inspired by bothPower Rangers andSuper Sentai entitledCombo Rangers was published on the Internet, created by Japanese-Brazilian author Fábio Yabu. The webcomic's popularity allowed the webcomic to become a print comic book until 2004 and having a reboot through Graphic Novels in the 2010s.[26]
In 2001, Buki X-1 Productions, a French fan-based production company, produced its own series,Jushi Sentai France Five (now calledShin Kenjushi France Five), a tribute to Toei's long runningSuper Sentai series. The low-budget television seriesKaiju Big Battel directly parodies monster andKyodai Hero films and series by immersing their own costumed characters in professional wrestling matches among cardboard buildings. In 2006,Mighty Moshin' Emo Rangers premiered on the Internet as aPower Rangers spoof, but was quickly picked up byMTV UK for broadcast.[27] The popularity of tokusatsus in Brazil in the 90s provided many fans in the country who even tried to make indie series, the most notable beingInsector Sun (a low-budget tribute toKamen Rider)[28] andTimerMan.[29]
Peyton Reed, the director of theAnt-Man films in theMarvel Cinematic Universe, said thatAnt-Man's costume design was influenced by two‹See RfD›tokusatsu superheroes,Ultraman andInframan.[30]
In 2015, Brazilian indie game studio, Behold Studios, developed aPower Ranger andSuper Sentai inspired game,Chroma Squad.[31]
Tokusatsu has also had a large influence on western animation. Artist Thomas Perkins has delved into work that makes reference to tokusatsu. This is most notable in the design of the character Way Big fromBen 10, who bears a striking resemblance to Ultraman.[32]
In March 2024,Oxford English Dictionary included the word Tokusatsu as aloanword along with others fromJapanese culture.[33]
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