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Tiwa
Lalung (লালুং)
তিৱা /Tiwa
Native to	India
Region	Assam,Meghalaya
Ethnicity	371,000 approx.Tiwa (Lalung) (2011 census)[1]
Native speakers	33,921 (2011 census)[2]
Language family	Sino-Tibetan Tibeto-Burman Sal Bodo–Garo Bodo Tiwa
Writing system	Tiwa Mor (Latin Script) &Assamese
Language codes
ISO 639-3	lax
Glottolog	tiwa1253
ELP	Tiwa
Map of the Tiwa (Lalung) Language

Tiwa (Lalung) is aTibeto-Burman(Sino-Tibetan) language spoken by theTiwa people inAssam andMeghalaya inNorth East India. Tiwa language is similar toBoro,Dimasa,Kokborok andGaro language ofIndia.

Tiwa is spoken in northwesternKarbi Anglong district and further north in parts ofMorigaon District /Nagaon district in the plains ofAssam.^[3] There is a cluster of Tiwa villages in the northeasternRi-Bhoi District ofMeghalaya. For want of precise knowledge, it is difficult to speak of strictly delimited Tiwa dialects. On the one hand, Tiwa, probably with the exception of the variety of Tiwa spoken nearSonapur inAssam, is a single language, any of its dialects being mutually intelligible with any other. On the other hand, some lexical items, like the few given below for five different varieties of Tiwa (Tiwa speaking areas/villages -Marjông, Amsái,Magró, Amkhâ, andRongkhói, also referred to asMarj, Ams, Magr, Amkh andRong respectively further below), show enough variety to arouse one's curiosity. (We did not undertake any systematic study of Tiwa dialectal variation. There may well be other varieties, and it may be possible to group them together in some way.) For Example:

The words for fish (ngá inMarj andAms, andná in others) are less divergent and may offer a way of dividing the dialects into some groups. TheMarjông dialect (spoken inMarjông and its affiliated villages) forms the basis of this language topic. However, wherever possible the dialectal synonyms ofAmsái, Margó andAmkhâ have also been given, TheMarj andAms varieties are perfectly mutually intelligible, although the two groups easily recognize the differences in the other group.

Tiwa dialectal variations appear to be clustered around groups of villages that are held together by Tiwa religio-cultural rituals and celebrations that are traditionally held in a particular village and are centered around a priest (loró) who resides there. Such alliances of villages also had their own geographic area of jurisdiction (sîma) and lands for cultivation. The priest and the regular conduct of rituals and ceremonies gave such groups of villages socio-cultural cohesion. The earlier traditional system, which must have had stricter village coalitions, has suffered marginal disintegration in recent times.

InWest Karbi Anglong district, the villages ofMarjông,Amsái, Rongkhói, Amnî Baró andAmnî Sá still have their priests. The priest of theAmrî section now resides inBoksong. A Tiwa group is known asAmkhâ, which had its center atSuphing (also inWest Karbi Anglong), got dispersed and does not have a priest at present.

In theRi-Bhoi District ofMeghalaya, the villages ofAmjông,Lumphúi, andPhat Magró have their functioning priests even now. There is a section of Tiwa's in and aroundMayông (NortheastMeghalaya), but there is noMayông priest at the present time. It is believed that as only a person from theMaslông clan could become a priest when there was no one to inherit the priestly mantle at the death of the lastMayông priest, their priestly lineage came to an end, TheMaslóng clan itself seems to have disappeared. The priest of theSâgra section (also inMeghalaya) appears to have lost his ritual area of influence. The same is true of a section of Tiwa's known asLigrâ that does not have a functioning priest now.

Tiwa is spoken in the following districts (Ethnologue).

• Assam
  • East Karbi Anglong andWest Karbi Anglong districts
  • Nagaon district
  • Morigaon district
  • Kamrup district
  • Dhemaji district
• Meghalaya
  • Khasi Hills district (Ri-Bhoi district)

Like most languages of the hill tribes ofNortheast, India, Tiwa people do not have their own script. They use theRoman (Latin) script and occasionally useAssamese script.

Tiwa in Latin script has a different system, distinct from that of English. Tiwa uses a24-letter alphabet by removing the lettersF,Q,V,X andZ from the basic Latin alphabet and adding the diacritic letters′ ,^ and~ namelythópti, thópkho andkungái which is treated as a letter in its own right. Tiwa alphabet have 5-letter vowels and 16-letter consonant.

The Tiwa orthographic tradition (which is based on theRoman alphabet) is to a large extent straightforward; the letters represent the sounds they are generally associated with. However, exceptions in the language's sound system itself calls for some adjustments to be made in some areas. We consider below a few such areas.Check the Tiwa Mor (Tiwa Alphabet) chart below.

Tiwa does not use sounds that require the use of the lettersf, q, v, x, z. It does not haveb, d, j, and g in the word-initial and word-final positions (by a word we mean we morpheme without any affixes);ch- occurs only in the beginning of words (in the middle of a word it may occur as a cluster withp, t, k which are all voiceless plosive sounds). There is no contrast betweenc andch in Tiwa; the sound represented bych is an unaspirated sound in Tiwa. Keeping to the local orthographic practice,ch has been used in this topic.

In the word-initial positionb, d, j, and g occur in a few words, most of them of recent origin. In some instances, one of these can be seen as being protected by a preceding word with which it co-occurs in a fixed manner, as inkher bon 'thatch and other types of grass', which we take as two words as they have their own tones (in this case, the falling tone that is unmarked here), The same can be said of the adverbialbén inhûldi bén 'very yellowish', and a few other words beginning withb, d, j, and g.

Tiwa does not have word-medialp, t, c(h), k. They may occur as clusters in each other's company as inshíkta 'animal-trap',apcháp 'haphazardly', the recently coinedthópti 'acute accent', and others. When a vocalic suffix is added to a root that hasp, t, k as its final consonant, that finalp, t, k gets voiced tob, d, and g respectively, as inráp- 'help' >rápa [rába] 'to help' orrápo [rábo] 'will help'. A similar situation arises whenti- 'two' is prefixed to a noun or a numeral classifier that has an initialp, t, c(h) ork, as intin 'day' >titin [tidin] 'two days'. However, in all such instancesp, t, and k have been used consistently.

There are a handful of exceptions where the unproductive nature of the suffix, as inthrúba thrúbi 'unnoticed; quietly' (which we recognize as related tothrúp thráp in a hidden manner'), has forced us to keep the new voiced medial. A similar point can be said aboutchebé chabá 'in a damp and wet manner', which is recognizable as related tochép chép (and the reduplicatedchép chép cháp cháp) 'Wet and muddy', where the established tone shift to the right makes a case for the medial voiced-b- even stronger.

The wordthuke 'till' (a postposition) is of a different type; the final-e is an adverbial suffix. Here medialk really soundsk and notg. As a matter of fact, it is pronounced as[thukke] or[thuk-e]. The morpheme boundary is not disturbed by suffixation. There are other similar instances that involve consonants other than a plosive, likemile [mil-e] 'all, everything',chile [chil-e] 'as having a shiny film or sheen' andchole [chol-e] 'as whole grains'.

There are some recently borrowed words where the medialp, t, k are really voiceless consonants, like:

• kalapân – Spades (of cards)
• thin pati – A type of card game
• ita – Brick
• riti – File
• ritî tustûr – Customs and traditions
• eka – Ace (in a pack of cards)
• duki – Card mark 2
• rekót – Record

In all such instances, the syllabification is such that these medial consonants are syllable initials. The above words would be syllabified as[ka-la-pan], [thin pa-til], [i-ta], [e-ka], [ri-ti], [du-ki] and[re-kót]. There are many such examples, and we may make a guess that they are on the increase.

Tiwa's tendency to avoidb-, d-, j-, g- (voiced plosives) in the initial position and-p-, -t-, -ch-, -k- (voiceless plosives) in the middle of a simple word places a burden on the speakers when naturalizing borrowed words. If the free variationspon ~ bon 'strike (wherebon is more common),tobôl ~ dobôl ~ dabûl 'double' (wheredobôl ~ dabûl is gaining ground) andmethêng ~ medêng ~ mitîng 'meeting' (wheremethêng ~ medêng are getting more and more rare) are any indication, we can make a safe bet that voiced initial plosives (ie,b-, d-, j- g-) and voiceless medial plosives (ie,-p-, -t-, -ch-, -k-) will get more and more established in the language.

Although not widespread in the language, Tiwa has nasalization [marked with the tilde calledkungái(~ ) in Tiwa] as a phoneme. Even among the few nasalized Tiwa words, we can spot minimal pairs like:

• rew rew – Accompanied by an unpleasant feeling
• rẽw rẽw – (Onomatopoeia) slow repetitive squeaky noise
• praw praw – (Onomatopoeia) of splashing water
• prãw prãw – (Onomatopoeia) of the humming of bees

Nasalization may co-occur with either of the tones. As a convention when nasalization co-occurs with the falling tone on a monosyllabic root, only the nasalization is marked.

Tiwa has two phonemic tones: a falling tone (marked with a circumflex except on one-syllable words where it is unmarked) calledthópkho(^ ) in Tiwa, and a rising tone (marked with the acute accent) calledthópti(′ ) in Tiwa.

• re – And
• ré – Cloth
• cha – Not have
• chá- – Eat
• rom- – Engage (for work)
• róm- – Catch
• shu- – Peck, gore
• shú- – Pound

Polysyllabic words have just one tone, that may occur on any one of the syllables.

There is a tendency for the tone to shift to the right in actual speech. In some compounds the tone shift is an established part of the word:tudí 'egg' (<tú 'bird'; chicken),moná(<mó 'eye' and dative-na) inmoná chína 'to like' and the adverbial/aspectualmanó(<mán- 'get' and non-past-o). There are a few instances where the tonal shift occurs across the word-boundary, as in:kidâp 'book', buthísap kídap 'account', andshêna 'strip' butngá shéna (~ ngáshena) 'fish cut into strips'.

Sometimes a word turns up with a different tone when it enters into a compound. This phenomenon is not uniform across the different dialects of Tiwa. In theMarjôngdialect there istingkhí 'leg-mortar' andthá tingkhî 'a variety of yam (that looks like the pestle of a leg-mortar)'; similarlymusí 'rat' andmusî chelé 'a variety of mousetrap'. In theAmsáidialect their equivalents arethá tingkhí andmusí chelé, without the tone change. Other examples aremusí 'rat' andmusî chelé 'a type of mousetrap';khễya 'a medium-sized palm tree with sweet-scented flowers' andkhum khễya 'the sweet-scented flowers of this palm tree';sháguni 'porous sieving basket' andshak shâguni 'to purify'.

In this topic the high tone is marked in all instances. Two conventional rules have been followed in marking the falling tone:

(1) monosyllabic roots having a falling tone are not marked for tone. Accordingly, tan [tân] 'offering' is not marked for its falling tone, whiletán[tán-] 'cut' is marked for its high tone. We did not extend this rule to include the falling tone on all first-syllables, in order to be able to have a visual clue to differentiate words likeshuwa(<shu- 'peck' and-wa 'nominalizer suffix') 'the pecking' andshûwa 'rubbish, impurity'.

(2) The adverbs such as mile 'all, everything',lore 'as having a shiny film or sheen',chole 'as whole grains' and many others are analyzed as having a monosyllabic root and the adverbial suffix-e; following rule(1) such adverbs are unmarked, if they have a falling tone. In some cases the root is also a free word (ie a morpheme), while many of them are no longer free morphemes in the present state of the language.

The area of polysyllabic roots is a difficult area for tonal analysis. There are no straight forward minimal pairs of bare roots (even among disyllabic roots) that are differentiated by the position of the same tone, We do have examples likekojá 'red' andkojâ- 'be free; have free time'; or,rojá- 'sing' androjâ- 'thick'.

TheAmsáidialect does have some examples, likesarí 'whetstone' (which inMarjôngissárai) andsári 'a little' as inkai sári 'a little each';khagái 'baby boy' (which inMarjôngiskháisa) andkhágai- 'tie paddy bundle in the middle';ná-na 'to enter',na-na 'to appear' andnaná(< indaná) 'why'.

Tiwa appears to have a preference for disyllabic roots. Tiwa does have several 3-syllable words, but 3-syllable roots also tend to have a secondary tone, as inshorondó [shôrondó]. This may partially be governed by the segmental constitution of the initial syllable itself. Four syllable roots tend to be split into two disyllabic words, with two tones, as intariphûra [tarî-phûra] 'tree-less and open (land)',shuguphûra [shûgu-phûra] 'hypocritical (masc)' andhâbuskharya [hâbus-khârya] 'greedy'.

It is difficult to come across polysyllabic roots that are differentiated by the position of the same tone. One instance we have encountered ismilâi- 'be in agreement' and mîlai ~ milâi (two variants of mile) 'everything'. Following the second conventional rule regarding marking falling tones, mile (analyzed to be built on the monosyllabic rootmil-) is not marked for its falling tone. The interaction of roots and suffixes gives rise to a number of such minimal pairs. We have:

• chána — To eat (chá- 'eat' and the infinitive-na)
• chaná/chana — That there may not be (cha 'there be not' and the infinitive-na)
• cháwa — The eating (chá- 'eat' and the nominalizer-wa)
• chawa — To sift (chaw- 'sift' and the infinitive-a)
• chawá/chawa — That which is not there (cha 'there be not' and the nominalizerwa)
• khúla — To scoop; to serve out (khúl- 'scoop' and the infinitive-na)
• khulá — Land where cotton is cultivated (< khul 'cotton' andhá 'land')

The segmental composition of the disyllabic roots (which make up the bulk of the polysyllabic roots in Tiwa) gives a clue as to where a falling tone would be, if that root has a falling tone. If such a root has a syllable withh, s, sh, ph, th or kh as the initial (note thatch is excluded) the falling tone would be on that syllable. Examples are:hûri 'winged white ant',sâra 'care, concern',asî 'aunt',shôron 'echo form oflat 'shame',phâmdim 'rheumatism',mathî 'world',khûnda 'post',makhâ 'hill'. Polysyllabic roots that have two or more syllables with these consonants (as inshâsi 'insect; germ') probably follow some pattern; but we have not studied them systematically.

If a disyllabic root does not have a syllable withh, s, sh, ph, th orkh, then the falling tone would be (with some exceptions) on the final syllable, as inmindâi 'deity',mandâr 'tree (variety)',alî 'path',rogôm 'method',muyûm 'acne; pimple'.

As a further proof of this pattern in Tiwa, we have variations likekhâru/karû (echo forms ofkahâ 'wound'),khûndar/kundâr (echo forms ofandâr 'dark') andchenê tenê/thêne 'somehow', In the same direction we havekarôn 'reason' andkhâron 'reason' (as inkhâron kóna 'give news of somebody's death to the village priest') borrowed from Assameseকাৰণ (kāran) 'reason'.

The marking of tones could have been made simpler by taking advantage of this behaviour of Tiwa and by not marking the falling tone on 2-syllable roots. However, we have resisted from taking this step for two reasons:

(1) There are a few words (most of them, if not all, peripheral, onomatopoeic or recent words) that do not follow this rule. Some of them are:

• îni/hîni — Look here!
• ûya/hûya — Look there!
• îya — Interjection (of surprise)
• îngguri — Enquiry
• êngleng — Cicada (variety, onomatopoeia)
• pâiling — Cicada (variety, onomatopoeia)
• kûrleng — Cicada (variety, onomatopoeia), (Amskhúrleng)

And,(2) if we mark all the polysyllabic roots for the falling tone, we get a visual clue to differentiate such homophones as:

• parê- — Increase, grow in number
• pare — Of the week (< par 'week')
• pare — Of the wind (< par 'wind')

In the first instanceparê- is the root, while in the second and third instances par 'week' and par 'wind' are the roots (whose falling tones are not marked because they are monosyllabic roots). The same is true ofparâ 'more' and par-a 'to bloom',shuwa (< shu- 'peck') 'the pecking' and — 'rubbish, impurity'. Similarly, we have:lore [lor-e] 'suddenly (of spurts)' andlorê- 'give chase',lele [lel-e] 'as protruding' andlelê- 'incite; instigate'. See Polysyllabic Minimal Pairs for mile[mîl-e] ~ mîlai ~ milâi 'everything', a word that, with its variants, straddles the area of the regular rule and that of the exceptions.

Tiwa suffixes are of four types:

1. Suffixes that do not have an inherent tone. These suffixes are coloured by the tone that precedes them. These may be considered true suffixes, and to this category belongs suffixes like the infinitive−(n)a, the dative−(n)a, the nominalizer−(w)a, the non-past−w/-o, the optative−thong, the conditional−gai, the negative−y and the present−do.

After the negative−ya (which itself belongs to this group) all the suffixes of group(1) (except−do and−w/-o which do not co-exist with−ya) have the peculiar behaviour of taking the rising tone. Accordingly, we have,phiwa 'the coming; somebody who is coming' andphiyawá 'the not coming, who is not coming';os 'to give' andosyaná 'not to give'. The spelling system used in Tiwa language incorporates this phenomenon. The chart below represents the rather complex behaviour of these suffixes (in theAmsái andMarjông dialects) when they are used aftercha 'there be not'.

This generates a complex situation with many free variations such aschane/chané 'because there is not' (Marj and Ams),chawa/chawá 'that which is not there' (Marj and Ams),chagai 'if there isn't' (Marj), (butchagai/chagái inAms),chana 'to be not' (Marj) (chana/chaná inAms),chaithong (Marj) (butchaithóng inAms),chaido 'there isn't' (Marj and Ams). In this topic the formschana, chane, chawa, chagai, chaithong and chaido have been preferred because they are the regular forms and are common to bothMarj and Ams.

2. Suffixes that have an inherent falling tone. Some of the suffixes that belong to this set are the instrumental−rê, the plural−râwand−mân,−bô 'also' and−dô, −lô, −sê that generate different shades of emphasis.

3. Suffixes that have an inherent rising tone. To this group belongs the imperative−bó and−thó as well as the non-continuative−khá.

4. The directional suffix−jing is all by itself; it takes the falling tone when preceded by the rising tone and vice versa. So we havenójîng 'towards the house' buttijíng 'to the water source/well'.

A general characteristic of Tiwa is that the tones, whether the falling or the rising tone, spread to the right until they encounter the opposite unyielding tone, after which that new tone colours the following syllables, till that itself is encountered by the other tone in a stubborn pose. This principle is used in marking the tones of the syllables of larger words in this dictionary, and appears to capture the essence of the Tiwa tonal behaviour. Some examples are given below:

• (1) phiyasekhá – S/he will definitely not come
• (2) phiyakhásê – S/he will not come (and nothing can be done about it)
• (3) Nábô phiwbó/líwbo bo! – (I) suppose you too will come/go (along)!
• (4) pibúrlôbó – It is indeed they

In(1) phiyasekhá the falling tone ofphi− (unmarked here being a monosyllable) 'come' spreads across to the negative marker−ya and the emphatic se, but was stopped by the non-continuativekhá. The situation is similar in(2) phiyakhásê; we also notice that−se arrested the rising tone ofkhá. In(3) phiwbó is an instance where−bó did not yield to the falling tone ofphi− ; andlíwbo shows how the rising tone of−bó just merged along with that oflí−. The example(4) haspibúr 'they' and two unyielding suffixes: emphatic−lô and definitive−bó.

Marjông andAmsái, only four kilometers apart by road from village centre to village centre [or, from cultural house (shámadi) to cultural house] and separated only by a broad swath of paddy-land, show a considerable amount of dialectal differences. Apart from the situations whereMarjông andAmsái use different words for the same concept, there are others where the differences are only segmental and tonal, but very evident:

The tonal differences betweenMarjông andAmsái make an interesting point of study. If the two dialects agree that a particular word has a falling tone, then the two dialects place the falling tone on the same syllable in a word. We did not come across any instances where the two dialects have the falling tone on different syllables of a word. However, there are a few of instances where the two dialects have different tones, as in:

The two dialects exploit the position of the rising tone in polysyllabic roots even to a greater degree. Below are but a few of the many instances:

A closer look at these disyllabic words that have the high tone on different syllables in Marj andAms reveals that Marj extends the rule explained in 5.5 (Partial Predictability of the Tiwa Falling Tone) regarding the falling tone to include the high tone, whileAms does not follow this rule for the high tone. That is, if a disyllabic word with a high tone has a syllable withh, s, sh, ph, th orkh as the initial, then in theMarjông dialect, the high tone (with some exceptions) will be on that syllable, while this is not the case in theAmsái dialect.

A further proof for the above rule comes from the following table of words.

Tiwa appears to have made good use of the languages that it came into contact with in its past and is surrounded by at present, to enhance its store of words and linguistic devises. Borrowings from theIndo-Aryan languagesAssamese/Bengali andHindi/Nepali and, to a lesser extent, from theAustro-AsiaticKhasi (orPnar) and theTibeto-BurmanKarbi are discernible in the Tiwa lexicon. Today's educated persons sprinkleEnglish words generously into their speech.

The main source of borrowing appears to be Assamese. In transcribing the Assamese words the following convention has been used:

ক ( k ) খ ( kh ) গ ( g ) ঘ ( gh ) ঙ ( ng )

চ ( c ) ছ ( ch ) জ ( j ) ঝ ( jh ) ঞ ( nya )

ট ( ʈ ) ঠ ( ʈh ) ড ( ɖ ) ঢ ( ɖh ) ণ ( ɳ )

ত ( t ) থ ( th ) দ ( d ) ধ ( dh ) ন ( n )

প ( p ) ফ ( ph ) ব ( b ) ভ ( bh ) ম ( m )

য ( y ) ৰ ( r ) ল ( l ) ৱ ( w )

শ ( s̪ ) ষ ( sh ) স ( s ) হ ( h )

ক্ষ ( ks̪ ) ড় ( r̪ ) ঢ় ( r̪h ) য় ( y )

The vowel symbols used are:ɑ (অ), ā ( আ ), i ( ই ), ī ( ঈ ), ē ( এ ), u ( উ ), ū ( ঊ ) ando ( ও ).

A brief analysis of the way Tiwa has accommodated the Indo-Aryan borrowings is outlined below. The orthographic forms of the Assamese words, rather than the phonemic forms, are taken for analysis, which is mostly restricted to the initials.

1. Initial Assamese voiceless plosives (aspirated and unaspirated), excluding the palatals, are realised as voiceless aspirated plosives in Tiwa. Accordingly,প (p) andফ (ph) becomeph, whileট (t), ঠ (th), ত (ʈ) andথ (ʈh) becometh; ক (k) andখ (kh) becomekh in Tiwa.

2. Initial Assamese unaspirated voiced plosives, including the palatal, are realized as voiced unaspirated plosives in Tiwa. Accordingly,গ (g), জ (j), ড (ɖ) as well asদ (d) andব (b) turn out ask, c(h), t andp respectively in Tiwa.

3. Initial Assamese voiced aspirates appear to have taken two main routes depending on the number of syllables of the word:

(a) monosyllabic words having such initials become disyllabic words in Tiwa by splitting apart the place-of-articulation and the aspiration, accompanied by devoicing of the consonant. Although there are not many examples, the pattern is evident.

(b) polysyllabic words (of which disyllabic words are in the majority) undergo two changes: the aspiration is just ignored and the consonant is devoiced.

4. Assamese shistorical affricates that have become fricatives in Assamese itself turn up as fricativesh in Tiwa.

5. Assameseশ andস becomes, while becomesহ ash in Tiwa.

There are some exceptions that apparently go contrary to these patterns. Some of them may be genuine exceptions whose reasons will need to be probed in greater depth, others point to a shallower time-depth of the borrowing.

There are a few instances of the same lexeme being borrowed more than once. The different resultant forms vindicate the above analysis. Some examples are

Such second borrowing also gives rise to voiced stop initials as seen in the following free variations.

Tiwa has a decimal system and counts to 10 with unique words, after which the number words combine to add to the larger number as shown in the chart below.

• Tiwa (Lalung)
• Tiwa Autonomous Council (Tiwashong)
• Jonbeel Mela
• Wanshuwa Festival
• Deo Langkhui
• Tiwa musical instrument

• 1. ^Tiwa-English Dictionary - UV Jose, Associates Editors -Horsing Kholar, Juliana Maslai, Alfred Maslai, Bibiana Maslai, Simon Mithi
• 2. Don Bosco Centre for Indigenous Cultures, Shillong 2014
• 3. The Assamese words in this section are from Hem Chandra Barua'sHem Kosha (The Assamese-English Dictionary) edited and published by Debananda Barua as its seventh edition in 1992.
• 4. Some words that are indicated in the above topic as borrowed into Tiwa from another language (especially the Indo-Aryan Assamese) could as well be a Tiwa word (or an earlier Tibeto-Burman word) that has found its way into that language.

• Sal languages
• Languages of Assam
• Tiwa (India)

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