Titus Caesar Vespasianus (/ˈtaɪtəs/TY-təs; 30 December 39 – 13 September 81 AD) wasRoman emperor from 79 to 81 AD. A member of theFlavian dynasty, Titus succeeded his fatherVespasian upon his death, becoming the first Roman emperor ever to succeed his biological father.
Before becoming emperor, Titus gained renown as a military commander, serving under his father inJudea during theFirst Jewish–Roman War. The campaign came to a brief halt with the death of emperorNero in 68 AD, launching Vespasian's bid for the imperial power during theYear of the Four Emperors. When Vespasian was declared Emperor on 1 July 69 AD, Titus was left in charge of ending the Jewish rebellion. In 70 AD, hebesieged and captured Jerusalem, and destroyed the city and theSecond Temple. For this achievement Titus was awarded atriumph; theArch of Titus commemorates his victory and still stands today.
During his father's rule, Titus gained notoriety in Rome serving asprefect of thePraetorian Guard, and for carrying on a controversial relationship with the Jewish queenBerenice. Despite concerns over his character, Titus ruled to great acclaim following the death of Vespasian on 23 June 79 AD, and was considered a good emperor bySuetonius and other contemporary historians.
As emperor, Titus is best known for completing theColosseum and for his generosity in relieving the suffering caused by two disasters, theeruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79 and a fire in Rome in 80 AD. After barely two years in office, Titus died of a fever on 13 September 81 AD. He wasdeified by theRoman Senate and succeeded by his younger brotherDomitian.
Decades of civil war during the 1st century BC had contributed greatly to the demise of the old aristocracy of Rome, which was gradually replaced in prominence by a new Italian nobility during the early 1st century.[3] One such family was thegensFlavia, which rose from relative obscurity to prominence in only four generations, acquiring wealth and status under the Emperors of theJulio-Claudian dynasty. Titus's great-grandfather,Titus Flavius Petro, had served as acenturion underPompey duringCaesar's Civil War. His military career ended in disgrace when he fled the battlefield at theBattle of Pharsalus in 48 BC.[4]
Nevertheless, Petro managed to improve his status by marrying the extremely-wealthy Tertulla, whose fortune guaranteed the upwards mobility of Petro's sonTitus Flavius Sabinus I, Titus's grandfather.[5] Sabinus himself amassed further wealth and possibleequestrian status through his services astax collector in Asia and banker inHelvetia. By marryingVespasia Polla, he allied himself to the more prestigiouspatriciangens Vespasia, ensuring the elevation of his sonsTitus Flavius Sabinus II andVespasian to thesenatorial rank.[5]
Thepolitical career of Vespasian included the offices ofquaestor,aedile andpraetor and culminated with aconsulship in 51, the year Domitian was born. As a military commander, he gained early renown by participating in theRoman invasion of Britain in 43.[6] What little is known of Titus's early life has been handed down bySuetonius, who recorded that he was brought up at the imperial court in the company ofBritannicus,[7] the son of EmperorClaudius, who would be murdered byNero in 55.
The story was even told that Titus was reclining next to Britannicus on the night he was murdered and sipped of the poison that was handed to him.[7] Further details on his education are scarce, but it seems he showed early promise in themilitary arts and was a skilled poet and orator both inGreek andLatin.[8]
Titus then took a new wife of a much more distinguished family,Marcia Furnilla. However, Marcia's family was closely linked to the opposition toNero. Her uncleBarea Soranus and his daughterServilia were among those who perished after the failedPisonian conspiracy of 65.[10] Some modern historians think that Titus divorced his wife because of her family's connection to the conspiracy.[11][12]
Titus never remarried and appears to have had daughters, at least one of them by Marcia Furnilla.[13][14] The only one known to have survived to adulthood wasJulia Flavia, perhaps Titus's child by Arrecina, whose mother was also named Julia.[15] During this period Titus also practiced law and attained the rank ofquaestor.[14]
Nero appointed Vespasian to put down the rebellion, who was dispatched to the region at once with theFifth Legion andTenth Legion.[17] He was later joined atPtolemais by Titus with theFifteenth Legion.[18] With a strength of 60,000 professional soldiers, the Romans prepared to sweep across Galilee and march on Jerusalem.[18]
The history of the war was covered in detail by the Roman-Jewish historianJosephus in his workThe War of the Jews. Josephus served as a commander in the city ofYodfat when the Roman army invaded Galilee in 67. After an exhausting siege which lasted 47 days, the city fell, with an estimated 40,000 killed. Titus, however, was not simply set on ending the war.[19]
Surviving one of several group suicides, Josephus surrendered to Vespasian and became a prisoner. He later wrote that he had provided the Romans with intelligence on the ongoing revolt.[20] By 68, the entire coast and the north of Judaea were subjugated by the Roman Army, with decisive victories won atTaricheae andGamala, where Titus distinguished himself as a skilled general.[14][21]
The last and most significant fortified city held by theJewish resistance was Jerusalem. The campaign came to a sudden halt when news arrived of Nero's death.[22] Almost simultaneously, theRoman Senate had declaredGalba, the governor ofHispania, as emperor. Vespasian decided to await further orders and sent Titus to greet the newprinceps.[23]
Before reaching Italy, Titus learnt that Galba had been murdered and replaced byOtho, the governor ofLusitania, and thatVitellius and his armies inGermania were preparing to march on the capital, intent on overthrowing Otho. Not wanting to risk being taken hostage by one side or the other, he abandoned the journey to Rome and rejoined his father in Judaea.[24] Meanwhile, Otho was defeated in theFirst Battle of Bedriacum and committed suicide.[25]
When the news reached the armies in Judaea andÆgyptus, they took matters into their own hands and declared Vespasian emperor on 1 July 69.[26] Vespasian accepted and, after negotiations by Titus, joined forces withGaius Licinius Mucianus, governor of Syria.[27] A strong force drawn from the Judaean and Syrian legions marched on Rome under the command of Mucianus, and Vespasian travelled toAlexandria, leaving Titus in charge to end the Jewish rebellion.[28][29] By the end of 69, the forces of Vitellius had been beaten, and Vespasian was officially declared emperor by the Senate on 21 December, thus ending theYear of the Four Emperors.[30]
Arch of Titus: North inner panel, relief of Titus astriumphatorArch of Titus: South inner panel, close-up ofrelief showing spoils from thefall of JerusalemConquest of Jerusalem by Emperor Titus, byNicolas Poussin (1638), depicts the destruction and looting of the Second Temple
Titus surrounded the city with three legions (Vth, XIIth and XVth) on the western side and one (Xth) on theMount of Olives to the east. He put pressure on the food and water supplies of the inhabitants by allowing pilgrims to enter the city to celebratePassover and then refusing them egress. Jewish raids continuously harassed the Roman Army, one of which nearly resulted in Titus being captured.[33]
After attempts by Josephus to negotiate a surrender had failed, the Romans resumed hostilities and quickly breached the first and second walls of the city.[34] To intimidate the resistance, Titus ordered deserters from the Jewish side to becrucified around the city wall.[35] By that time the Jews had been exhausted by famine, and when the weak third wall was breached, bitter street fighting ensued.[36]
The Romans finally captured theAntonia Fortress and began a frontal assault on the gates of theSecond Temple.[37] As they breached the gate, the Romans set the upper and lower city aflame, culminating with the destruction of the Temple. When the fires subsided, Titus gave the order to destroy the remainder of the city, allegedly intending that no one would remember the name Jerusalem.[38] The Temple was demolished, Titus's soldiers proclaimed himimperator in honour of the victory.[39]
Jerusalem was sacked and much of the population killed or dispersed. Josephus claims that 1,100,000 people were killed during the siege, most of whom were Jewish.[40] Josephus's death toll assumptions are rejected as impossible by modern scholarship since about a million people then lived in the Land of Israel, half of them Jewish, and sizable Jewish populations remained in the area after the war was over, even in the hard-hit region of Judea.[41] However, 97,000 were captured and enslaved, including Simon Bar-Giora and John ofGischala.[40] Many fled to areas around theMediterranean Sea. Titus reportedly refused to accept awreath of victory, as he claimed that he had not won the victory on his own but had been the vehicle through which their God had manifested His wrath against His people.[42]
Unable to sail to Italy during the winter, Titus celebrated elaborate games atCaesarea Maritima andBerytus and then travelled toZeugma on theEuphrates, where he was presented with a crown byVologases I of Parthia. While he was visitingAntioch, he confirmed the traditional rights of the Jews in that city.[44]
On his way toAlexandria, he stopped inMemphis to consecrate the sacred bullApis. According to Suetonius, that caused consternation since the ceremony required Titus to wear adiadem, which the Romans associated with monarchy, and the partisanship of Titus's legions had already led to fears that he might rebel against his father. Titus returned quickly to Rome in the hope, according to Suetonius, of allaying any suspicions about his conduct.[45]
Upon his arrival in Rome in 71, Titus was awarded atriumph.[46] Accompanied by Vespasian and Domitian, Titus rode into the city, enthusiastically saluted by the Roman populace and preceded by a lavish parade containing treasures and captives from the war. Josephus describes a procession with large amounts of gold and silver carried along the route, followed by elaborate re-enactments of the war, Jewish prisoners and finally the treasures taken from the Temple of Jerusalem, including theMenorah and thePentateuch.[47] Simon Bar Giora was executed in theForum, and the procession closed with religious sacrifices at theTemple of Jupiter.[48]ThetriumphalArch of Titus, which stands at one entrance to the Forum, memorialises the victory of Titus.
With Vespasian declared emperor, Titus and his brother Domitian received the title ofCaesar from the Senate.[49] In addition to sharingtribunician power with his father, Titus held sevenconsulships during Vespasian's reign[50] and acted as his secretary, appearing in the Senate on his behalf.[50] More crucially, he was appointedPraetorian prefect (commander of thePraetorian Guard), ensuring its loyalty to the emperor and further solidifying Vespasian's position as a legitimate ruler.[50]
In that capacity, Titus achieved considerable notoriety in Rome for his violent actions, frequently ordering the execution of suspected traitors on the spot.[50] When in 79, a plot byAulus Caecina Alienus andEprius Marcellus to overthrow Vespasian was uncovered, Titus invited Alienus to dinner and ordered him to be stabbed before he had even left the room.[50][51]
During the Jewish Wars, Titus had begun a love affair withBerenice, the sister ofAgrippa II.[24] TheHerodians had collaborated with the Romans during the rebellion, and Berenice herself had supported Vespasian in his campaign to become emperor.[52] In 75, she returned to Titus and openly lived with him in the palace as his promised wife. The Romans were wary of the eastern queen and disapproved of their relationship.[53] When the pair was publicly denounced byCynics in the theatre, Titus acceded to the pressure and sent her away,[54] but his reputation suffered further regardless.
A Romandenarius depicting Titus, c. 79. The reverse commemorates histriumph in theJudaean Wars, representing a Jewish captive kneeling in front of a trophy of arms. Caption: IMP. T. CAESAR VESPASIANVS AVG. / TRibunus POTestas VIII, COnSul VII
Vespasian died of an infection on 23[55] or 24[56] June 79 AD, and was immediately succeeded by his son Titus.[57] He was the first Roman emperor to come to the throne after his own biological father. As Pharaoh of Egypt, Titus adopted the titularyAutokrator Titos Kaisaros Hununefer Benermerut ("Emperor Titus Caesar, the perfect and popular youth").[58] Because of his many (alleged) vices, many Romans feared that he would be another Nero.[59] Against those expectations, however, Titus proved to be an effective emperor and was well loved by the population, who praised him highly when they found that he possessed the greatest virtues, instead of vices.[59]
One of his first acts as emperor was to order a halt to trials based on treason charges,[60] which had long plagued theprincipate. The law oftreason, orlaw of majestas, was originally intended to prosecute those who had corruptly "impaired the people and majesty of Rome" by any revolutionary action.[61] UnderAugustus, however, that custom had been revived and applied to coverslander andlibel as well.[61] This led to numerous trials and executions underTiberius,Caligula, and Nero, and the formation of networks of informers (delators), which terrorised Rome's political system for decades.[60]
Titus put an end to that practice against himself or anyone else and declared:
It is impossible for me to be insulted or abused in any way. For I do naught that deserves censure, and I care not for what is reported falsely. As for the emperors who are dead and gone, they will avenge themselves in case anyone does them a wrong, if in very truth they are demigods and possess any power.[62]
Consequently, nosenators were put to death during his reign;[62] he thus kept to his promise that he would assume the office ofPontifex Maximus "for the purpose of keeping his hands unstained".[63] Informants were publicly punished and banished from the city. Titus further prevented abuses by making it unlawful for a person to betried under different laws for the same offense.[60] Finally, when Berenice returned to Rome, he sent her away.[59]
As emperor, he became known for his generosity, andSuetonius states that upon realising he had brought no benefit to anyone during a whole day he remarked, "Friends, I have lost a day".[60]
Although Titus's brief reign was marked by a relative absence of major military or political conflicts, he faced a number of major disasters. A few months after his accession,Mount Vesuvius erupted.[64] The eruption almost completely destroyed the cities and resort communities around theBay of Naples. The cities ofPompeii andHerculaneum were buried under metres of stone and ash,[65] killing thousands.[66] Titus appointed two ex-consuls to organise and coordinate the relief effort and personally donated large amounts of money from the imperial treasury to aid the victims of the volcano.[60] Additionally, he visited Pompeii once after the eruption and again the following year.[67]
Meanwhile, war had resumed inBritannia, whereGnaeus Julius Agricola pushed further intoCaledonia and managed to establish several forts there.[68] As a result of his actions, Titus received the title ofimperator for the fifteenth time, between 9 September and 31 December 79 AD.[69]
During the second visit to Pompeii, in spring of 80, a fire broke out in Rome and burned large parts of the city for three days and three nights.[60][67] Although the extent of the damage was not as disastrous as during theGreat Fire of 64 and crucially spared the many districts ofinsulae,Cassius Dio records a long list of important public buildings that were destroyed, including Agrippa'sPantheon, theTemple of Jupiter, theDiribitorium, parts of theTheatre of Pompey, and theSaepta Julia among others.[67] Once again, Titus personally compensated for the damaged regions.[67] According to Suetonius, a plague also broke out during the fire.[60] The nature of the disease, however, and the death toll are unknown.
His reign also saw the rebellion led byTerentius Maximus, one of several false Neros who appeared throughout the 70s.[70] Although Nero was primarily known as a universally-hated tyrant, there is evidence that for much of his reign, he remained highly popular in the eastern provinces. Reports that Nero had survived his overthrow were fuelled by the confusing circumstances of his death and several prophecies foretelling his return.[71]
According to Cassius Dio, Terentius Maximus resembled Nero in voice and appearance and, like him, sang to thelyre.[62] Terentius established a following inAsia Minor but was soon forced to flee beyond theEuphrates and took refuge with theParthians.[62][70] In addition, sources state that Titus discovered that his brother Domitian was plotting against him but refused to have him killed or banished.[63][72]
The Flavian Amphitheatre, better known as theColosseum, after 10 years construction, was completed during the reign of Titus and inaugurated with spectacular games that lasted for 100 days. SeeInaugural games of the Flavian Amphitheatre.
Construction of the Flavian Amphitheatre, now better known as theColosseum, was begun in 70 underVespasian and was finally completed in 80 under Titus.[73] In addition to providing spectacular entertainments to the Roman populace, the building was also conceived as a gigantic triumphal monument to commemorate the military achievements of the Flavians during theJewish Wars.[74]
Theinaugural games lasted for a hundred days and were said to be extremely elaborate, includinggladiatorial combat, fights between wild animals (elephants andcranes),mock naval battles for which the theatre was flooded, horse races and chariot races.[75] During the games, wooden balls were dropped into the audience, inscribed with various prizes (clothing, gold, or evenslaves), which could then be traded for the designated item.[75]
Adjacent to the amphitheatre, within the precinct of Nero'sGolden House, Titus had also ordered the construction of a new publicbath house, theBaths of Titus.[75] Construction of the building was hastily finished to coincide with the completion of the Flavian Amphitheatre.[59]
Practice of theimperial cult was revived by Titus, but apparently, it met with some difficulty since Vespasian was not deified until six months after his death.[76] To honour and glorify theFlavian dynasty further, foundations were laid for what would later become theTemple of Vespasian and Titus, which was finished by Domitian.[77][78]
At the closing of the games, Titus officially dedicated the amphitheatre and the baths in what was his final recorded act as Emperor.[72] He set out for theSabine territories but fell ill at the first posting station[79] where he died of a fever, reportedly in the same farmhouse as his father.[80] Allegedly, the last words he uttered before dying were "I have made but one mistake".[72][79]
Titus had ruled theRoman Empire for just over two years: from the death of his father in 79 to his own on 13 September 81.[81][82] He was succeeded byDomitian, whose first act as emperor was todeify his brother.[83]
Historians have speculated on the exact nature of his death and to which mistake Titus alluded in his final words.Philostratus wrote that he was poisoned by Domitian with a sea hare (Aplysia depilans) and that his death had been foretold to him byApollonius of Tyana.[84] Suetonius and Cassius Dio maintain that he died of natural causes, but both accuse Domitian of having left the ailing Titus for dead.[72][83] Consequently, Dio believed the mistake to refer to not having Titus's brother executed when he was found to be openly plotting against him.[72]
TheBabylonian Talmud (Gittin 56b) attributes Titus's death to an insect that flew into his nose and picked at his brain for seven years in a repetition of another legend referring to the biblical KingNimrod.[85][86][87] According to Rabbinic literature, Titus was a descendant ofEsau and dared to challenge the Lord.[88] Jewish tradition says that Titus was plagued by God for destroying the second Temple and died as a result of agnat going up his nose, which slowly ate his brain and killed him. According to the Talmud, anautopsy discovered his brain mass had been reduced to the "size of a small bird".[89][90] Rabbinic scholars likeAzariah de Rossi reject the literal historicity of the story, viewing it as an allegory about divine retribution.Maharal and others, such asYosef Chaim of Baghdad, interpret the narrative allegorically, emphasizing its spiritual and moral lessons rather than its historical accuracy.Reuven Margolios suggests the Talmud might refer to another figure,Titus Frigius, rather than the emperor.
Another story is recorded in whichOnkelos, a nephew of the Roman emperor Titus who destroyed the Second Temple, intent on converting to Judaism, summons up spirits to help make up his mind. Each describes his punishment in the afterlife."Onkelos son of Kolonikos ... went and raised Titus from the dead by magical arts, and asked him; 'Who is most in repute in the [other] world? He replied: Israel. What then, he said, about joining them? He said: Their observances are burdensome and you will not be able to carry them out. Go and attack them in that world and you will be at the top as it is written, Her adversaries are become the head etc.; whoever harasses Israel becomes head. He asked him: What is your punishment [in the other world]? He replied: What I decreed for myself. Every day my ashes are collected and sentence is passed on me and I am burnt and my ashes are scattered over the seven seas..."[91]
Titus's record among ancient historians stands as one of the most exemplary of any emperor. The extant accounts from the period, many of them written by his contemporaries, present a highly favourable view toward Titus. His character has especially prospered in comparison with that of his brother Domitian.The Wars of the Jews offers a witness account of the Jewish rebellion and the character of Titus. The neutrality ofJosephus's writings has been questioned as he was indebted to theFlavians. In 71, he arrived in Rome in the entourage of Titus, became aRoman citizen and took on the Romannomen Flavius andpraenomen Titus from his patrons. He received an annual pension and lived in the palace.[92]
It was in Rome and under Flavian patronage that Josephus wrote all of his known works.The War of the Jews is biased against the leaders of the revolt by portraying the rebellion as weak and unorganised and even blaming the Jews for causing the war.[93] His credibility as a historian was later questioned.[94]
Another contemporary of Titus wasPublius Cornelius Tacitus, who started his public career in 80 or 81 and credits the Flavian dynasty with his elevation.[95]The Histories, his account of the period, was published during the reign ofTrajan. Unfortunately only the first five books from this work have survived, with the text on Titus's and Domitian's reigns lost.
Titus, of the same surname as his father, was the delight and darling of the human race; such surpassing ability had he, by nature, art, or good fortune, to win the affections of all men, and that, too, which is no easy task, while he was emperor.[96]
Cassius Dio wrote hisRoman History over 100 years after the death of Titus. He shares a similar outlook as Suetonius, possibly even using the latter as a source but is more reserved by noting that
His satisfactory record may also have been due to the fact that he survived his accession but a very short time, for he was thus given no opportunity for wrongdoing. For he lived after this only two years, two months and twenty days—in addition to the thirty-nine years, five months and twenty-five days he had already lived at that time. In this respect, indeed, he is regarded as having equalled the long reign ofAugustus, since it is maintained that Augustus would never have been loved had he lived a shorter time, nor Titus had he lived longer. For Augustus, though at the outset he showed himself rather harsh because of the wars and the factional strife, was later able, in the course of time, to achieve a brilliant reputation for his kindly deeds; Titus, on the other hand, ruled with mildness and died at the height of his glory, whereas, if he had lived a long time, it might have been shown that he owes his present fame more to good fortune than to merit.[57]
In contrast to the ideal portrayal of Titus in Roman histories, Jewish memory has "Titus the Wicked" remembered as an evil oppressor and destroyer of the Temple. A legend in the Babylonian Talmud described Titus as having had sex with a prostitute on a Torah scroll inside the Temple during its destruction.[99]
The Triumph of Titus, by SirLawrence Alma-Tadema (1885). The composition suggests a love affair between Titus and Domitian's wife,Domitia Longina (see below).
The war in Judaea and the life of Titus, particularly his relationship with Berenice, have inspired writers and artists through the centuries. Thebas-relief in the Arch of Titus has been influential in the depiction of thedestruction of Jerusalem, with theMenorah frequently being used to symbolise the looting of theSecond Temple.
La clemenza di Tito, anopera byMozart, which centres around a plot to kill Emperor Titus instigated by Vitellia, the daughter ofVitellius, to gain what she believes to be her rightful place as Queen.
The Triumph of Titus and Vespasian byGiulio Romano (1540). Oil on wood, 170 x 120 cm.Louvre,Paris. Depicts Titus and Vespasian as they ride into Rome on a triumphal chariot, preceded by a parade carrying spoils from the war in Judaea. The paintinganachronistically features the Arch of Titus, which was not completed until the reign of Domitian.
The Triumph of Titus byLawrence Alma-Tadema (1885). Oil on canvas. Private collection. This painting depicts the triumphal procession of Titus and his family. Alma-Tadema was known for his meticulous historical research on the ancient world.[101] Vespasian, dressed asPontifex Maximus, walks at the head of his family, followed by Domitian and his first wifeDomitia Longina, who he had only recently married. Behind Domitian follows Titus, dressed in religious regalia. An exchange of glances between Titus and Domitia suggests an affair which historians have speculated upon.[72][79]
Rear Panel of theFranks Casket. Northumbrian, early 8th century. Whale's bone carving with Anglo-Saxon runic inscription, 22.9 x 19 cm.British Museum, London. Titus leads Roman army into Jerusalem and captures Temple. Inhabitants flee into exile, judgement is passed on offenders, and captives are led away.
^Suetonius claims Titus was born in the year Caligula was assassinated, 41. However, this contradicts his statement that Titus died in his 42nd year, as well as Cassius Dio, who notes that Titus was 39 at the time of his accession. SeeSuetonius,The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Titus1,11; Cassius Dio,Roman HistoryLXVI.18; andBrian Jones; Robert Milns (2002).Suetonius: The Flavian Emperors: A Historical Commentary. London: Bristol Classical Press. p. 91.ISBN978-1-85399-613-9.
Jones, Brian W. (1992).The Emperor Domitian. London: Routledge.ISBN978-0-415-10195-0.
Brian Jones; Robert Milns (2002).Suetonius: The Flavian Emperors: A Historical Commentary. London: Bristol Classical Press. p. 91.ISBN978-1-85399-613-9.
.png)
_FO228683_bis_Photo_by_Paolo_Villa.jpg)
_FO228685_bis_Photo_by_Paolo_Villa.jpg)
.jpg)
_La_distruzione_del_tempio_di_Gerusalemme_-Francesco_Hayez_-_gallerie_Accademia_Venice.jpg){kind=link}
