Thetimeline of events of the Spanish–American War covers major events leading up to, during, and concluding theSpanish–American War, a ten-week conflict in 1898 between Spain and the United States of America.
The conflict had its roots in the worsening socio-economic and military position of Spain after thePeninsular War, the growing confidence of the United States as a world power, a lengthy independence movement inCuba and a nascent one in thePhilippines, and strengthening economic ties between Cuba and the United States.[7][8][9] Land warfare occurred primarily in Cuba and to a much lesser extent in the Philippines. Little or no fighting occurred inGuam,Puerto Rico, or other areas.[10]
Although largely forgotten in the United States today,[11] the Spanish–American War was a formative event in American history. The destruction of theUSS Maine,yellow journalism, the war slogan "Remember the Maine!", and thecharge up San Juan Hill are all iconic symbols of the war.[12][13][14][15] The war marked the first time since theAmerican Civil War that Americans from the North and the South fought a common enemy, and the war marked the end of strong sectional feeling and the "healing" of the wounds of that war.[16] The Spanish–American War catapultedTheodore Roosevelt to the presidency,[17] marked the beginning of the modernUnited States Army,[18] and led to the first establishment of American colonies overseas.[19]
The war proved seminal for Spain as well. The loss of Cuba, which was seen not as a colony but as part of Spain itself,[20] was traumatic for the Spanish government and Spanish people. This trauma led to the rise of theGeneration of '98, a group of young intellectuals, authors, and artists who were deeply critical of what they perceived as conformism and ignorance on the part of the Spanish people. They successfully called for a new "Spanish national spirit" that was politically active, anti-authoritarian, and generally anti-imperialistic and anti-military.[21] The war also greatly benefited Spain economically. No longer spending large sums to maintain its colonies, significant amounts of capital were suddenly repatriated for use domestically.[22] This sudden and massive influx of capital led to the development for the first time of large, modern industries in banking, chemicals, electrical power generation, manufacturing, ship building, steel, and textiles.[23][24]
The war led to independence for Cuba within a few years.[25] The United States imposed a colonial government on the Philippines, quashing the young Philippine Republic. This led directly to thePhilippine–American War,[26] a brutal guerilla conflict that caused the deaths of about 4,100 Americans and 12,000 to 20,000 Filipino guerilla and regular troops.[27][28][29] Another 200,000 to 1,500,000 Filipino civilian deaths occurred.[29][30][31] However, the conflict broughtWilliam Howard Taft to the attention of President Theodore Roosevelt, and led to Taft's ascension to the U.S. presidency in 1908.[32] The American presence in the Philippines still existed at the beginning of World War II. Along with the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, the American experience in the Philippines at the start of the war (thePhilippines Campaign, theBataan Death March, theBattle of Corregidor) became another formative episode in the American experience[33][34] and rehabilitated the career of GeneralDouglas MacArthur.[35][36][37][38]
April 10 - After widespread discussion with Cubans living in the United States,José Martí co-founds El Partido Revolucionario Cubano (theCuban Revolutionary Party). Its purpose is to win independence for Cuba. The organization is a reaction to nearly 15 years of economic growth, expansion of trade with the U.S., withering of trade with Spain, and extreme dissatisfaction with thepeninsularcaste system and socio-economic injustice.[39]
August 27 - TheUnited States Congress enacts theWilson–Gorman Tariff Act, which imposes much highertariffs on sugar. A suspension of Spanish tariffs on American goods expires at about the same time, leading to fears that the U.S. will retaliate against Cuba and other Spanish colonies by raising sugar and other tariffs even further. The two events devastate Cuba's economy, and Cuban sugar producers unite to try to get the Spanish tariffs lowered.[40]
February 24 - In the small town of Baire near the city ofSantiago de Cuba, Martí issues theGrito de Baire, igniting theCuban War of Independence. Within 18 months, the insurrectionists have 50,000 men under arms and uprisings have spread across the island.[41]
June 12 - U.S. PresidentGrover Cleveland issues a proclamation declaring the United Statesneutral in the Cuban war of independence.[42]
February 10 - After the Spanish lost the eastern part of Cuba to the revolutionaries and witnessing the outbreak of insurrection in the western provinces,Spanish ArmyGeneralArsenio Martínez-Campos y Antón is replaced asGovernor of Cuba by GeneralValeriano Weyler, 1st Duke of Rubí. Weyler begins a policy ofrecontratación ("reconcentration"), in which the people in rebel-held areas are rounded up and placed inconcentration camps.[43][44] Weyler brings with him more than 200,000Spanish Army troops, and organizes 50,000peninsulars and Cubans into a pro-Spanish militia.[45] About 400,000 people are placed in concentration camps with little provision made for food, housing, clothing, sanitation, and medical care, and the local economy collapses in areas where the camps are created. Tens of thousands of Cubans starve to death or die from disease.[46]
May 20 - The U.S. Congress appropriates $50,000 to provide food, clothing, and other supplies to approximately 1,200 destitute people living in Cuba who have both Cuban and American citizenship. President McKinley signs the legislation on May 24.[48][49]
January 11 - Anti-independence riots, incited by Spanish Army officers, occur inHavana, the capital of Cuba. Extensive property damage occurs as rioters demand that Spain stop giving concessions to the Cuban rebels.[52]
January 25 - TheUnited States NavybattleshipUSS Maine arrives atHavana Harbor fromKey West,Florida.[53] President McKinley says the ship is on a good-will visit, but the ship is there as a show of strength to ensure American property and lives are not threatened should additional rioting occur.[54]
Yellow journalism, like these headlines about the destruction of theUSS Maine in theNew York Journal, worsened war hysteria in the U.S. and helped cause the Spanish–American War.
February 9 -Enrique Dupuy de Lôme, theSpanish ambassador to the United States, is forced to resign after theDe Lôme Letter is published in theNew York Journal. This document, a private letter written to friend in Cuba, characterizes U.S. President McKinley as "weak" and a "would-be politician" who catered to the mostjingoistic elements of the Republican Party and public. The American public is outraged at the depiction of the United States as immature, militarily weak, and lacking in diplomatic skill.[55] The Autonomous Charter of Puerto Rico, a law approved the previous November by theCortes (the Spanish national legislature) giving local city and provincial governments of the island nearly completeautonomy, is implemented by SpanishGovernor-GeneralManuel Macías y Casado. The first autonomous government of Puerto Rico meets the following day.[56]
February 15 - The USSMaine explodes. About 274 of the ship's roughly 354 crew die.[57][d] Anaval court of inquiry led by CaptainWilliam T. Sampson is inconclusive, but the American press and most members of Congress conclude that theMaine struck anaval mine laid by the Spanish.[58] (Subsequent investigations over the next century suggest the explosion was caused by the ignition ofcoal dust in the fuel bunker or a fire in the coal bunker, although some researchers have also concluded the cause was a mine.)
March 9 - After learning that Spain was attempting to buyBrazilian warships under construction in theUnited Kingdom, U.S. President McKinley asks Congress for $50 million for national defense. Congress approves the request in a single day.[61] The U.S. Navy purchases the Brazilian ships instead.
March 14 - The Spanish Navy's Atlantic Squadron, commanded byAdmiralPascual Cervera y Topete, leaves the Spanish port ofCadiz for theCanary Islands and then the Portuguese-heldCape Verde Islands to position itself for a dash to theWest Indies in the event of war.[63] Admiral Cervera has orders to destroyKey West and blockade theEast Coast of the United States, but knows that his navy is in disrepair, has no ship repair facilities in the Americas, is ill-trained, and is significantly weaker than the U.S. Navy. He advocates a defensive strategy, but is ignored.[64]
April 3 - An insurrection against Spanish rule breaks out on the island ofCebu in the Philippines.[68]
April 4 - U.S. President McKinley's war message to Congress is delayed to April 6 and then April 11[69] after Spain submits a new plan (short of armistice) for Cuban autonomy and U.S.Consul-GeneralFitzhugh Lee in Havana asks for more time to evacuate Americans.[70] Other factors contributing to the delay include news that the Spanish Atlantic Squadron is still near the Cape Verde Islands and thatU.S. Attorney GeneralJohn W. Griggs needs more time to draft McKinley's message.[71]
April 9 - Spain agrees to the March 29 ultimatum's demand that it ask for anarmistice with the Cuban rebels, but the McKinley administration says the concession comes too late.[70][72] The same day, Spanish Army GeneralBasilio Augustín becomes Governor-General of the Philippines.[73] He creates a consultative assembly to avert open rebellion against Spain, but most Filipinos reject it as illegitimate.Emilio Aguinaldo establishes military organizations in each area under Filipino rebel control.[74]
April 11 - U.S. President McKinley submits his war message to Congress.[75]
April 19 - The U.S. Congress enacts ajoint resolution demanding independence for Cuba, and giving President McKinley the authorization to declare war if Spain does not yield. The resolution includes theTeller Amendment, which denies the U.S. the right to annex Cuba and makes it official American policy to promote Cuban democracy and independence.[76]
April 20 - U.S. President McKinley signs the congressional joint resolution into law.[76]
April 21 - Spain seversdiplomatic relations with the United States.[76] The same day, the U.S. Navy begins ablockade of Cuba.[77] Spain mobilizes 80,000 army reserves and sends 5,000 regular army soldiers to the Canary Islands.[78]
April 22 - U.S. President McKinley calls for 125,000 volunteers to join theNational Guard of the United States, while Congress authorizes an increase in regular Army forces to 65,000.[79] The U.S. Army is small (2,143 officers and 26,040 soldiers), ill-trained, and ill-equipped. The U.S. Navy, on the other hand, is modern and well-trained, well-repaired, and well-supplied.[78]
April 25 - The U.S. Congress declares that a state of war between the U.S. and Spain has existed since April 21.[76]
April 27 - The U.S. Asiatic Fleet leavesMirs Bay, Hong Kong, China, and heads for Manila.[80] The same day, in the first naval action of the war, theUSS New York,USS Cincinnati,USS Puritan, and other American naval ships bombard the Cuban city ofMatanzas.[81] Cuban coastal defenses return fire.[82]
May 1 -Battle of Manila Bay: The U.S. Asiatic Squadron enters Manila Bay at midnight. At anchor in the harbor is the out-gunned and ill-prepared Spanish fleet under the command of AdmiralPatricio Montojo. At about 4:10 A.M., the American fleet engages the older Spanish vessels.[84] In the ensuing seven-hour naval battle, Spain loses all seven of its ships, 381 Spanish sailors die, and three Spanish shore batteries are destroyed. There are no American combat deaths; two U.S. Navy officers and six sailors are wounded.[85]
May 2 - The U.S. Asiatic Fleet lacks soldiers to actually occupy territory,[86] so President McKinley authorizes U.S. Army troops to be sent to the Philippines.[87]
May 12 -Bombardment of San Juan: The U.S. North Atlantic Squadron sails into the harbor atSan Juan, Puerto Rico, where it is believed that the Spanish Atlantic Squadron has anchored. The Spanish are not there, but Rear Admiral William T. Sampson orders the city bombed anyway. Numerous civilians die.[91]Major GeneralWesley Merritt is appointed commander of the American force which will invade the Philippines. Merritt is eventually given more than 20,000 regular army and volunteer troops and told to occupy the entire Philippines.[92]
May 19 - Desperately low on fuel, Admiral Cervera's Spanish Atlantic Squadron sails unopposed into the harbor at Santiago de Cuba.[93]
May 23 - Emilio Aguinaldo declares that he has dictatorial powers over those areas of the Philippines held by Filipino rebels.[94]
May 25 - The First Philippine Expedition, consisting of members of the U.S. Army'sEighth Army Corps, departsSan Francisco,California, for Manila. The same day, U.S. President McKinley calls for an additional 75,000 volunteer soldiers.[95]
May 29 - The U.S. NavyFlying Squadron, commanded by CommodoreWinfield Scott Schley, arrives off Santiago de Cuba. Schley received orders to blockade Santiago de Cuba on May 24, but futilely awaited the Spanish Atlantic Squadron offCienfuegos first. The Flying Squadron consists of the armored cruiserUSS Brooklyn; the battleshipsUSS Iowa,USS Massachusetts, andUSS Texas; and the protected cruiserUSS Marblehead.[96] The 1st United States Volunteer Cavalry — better known as the "Rough Riders" because most of the men arecowboys,frontiersmen,railroad workers,Native Americans, and similar "rough" people from theAmerican West — depart their training camp inSan Antonio, Texas. They are under the command of ColonelLeonard Wood; Theodore Roosevelt, who largely organized the unit, declines command of it. Pleading inexperience, Roosevelt accepts a commission aslieutenant colonel of volunteers and serves as Wood's subordinate.[88][97]
May 31 - The U.S. Navy's Flying Squadron exchanges fire with the Spanish Navy's Atlantic Squadron armored cruiserCristóbal Colón and shore batteries at Santiago de Cuba.[95]
June 3 - Commodore Schley's U.S. Flying Squadron, supported by Rear Admiral Sampson'sU.S. North Atlantic Squadron (which arrived on June 1), attempts to block the entrance to the harbor at Santiago de Cuba by sinking thecollierUSS Merrimac in the main channel. Small Spanish gunboats and mines prevent the ship's proper positioning, and the harbor remains open. Assistant Naval ConstructorRichmond P. Hobson and his crew of seven are captured.[98]
June 7 - U.S. Marines from theSS St. Louis cut the submarine telegraph cable atGuantánamo Bay, severing communication between the city ofGuantánamo and the rest of Cuba.[99]
June 16 - The Spanish Navy's 2d Squadron, under the command of Rear AdmiralManuel de la Cámara y Libermoore, departs Spain for the Philippines. The fleet consists of the battleshipPelayo, armored cruiserEmperador Carlos V, unarmored cruisersPatriota andRapido, and two transports with 4,000 troops.[111]
June 19 - The Rough Riders disembark from U.S. Navy vessels onto a beach near Santiago de Cuba.[97]
June 20 - U.S. Army, U.S. Navy, and Cuban rebels meet for the Aserraderos Conference in the small town of Aserraderos (near Santiago de Cuba). They jointly plan strategy, troop movements, and battle plans.[112]
June 21 -Capture of Guam: The American protected cruiserUSS Charleston arrives at the Pacific Ocean island ofGuam on June 20 and fires a few warning shots in the air, which are misinterpreted by the small Spanish garrison as a salute. (The undersea telegraph was not working, and the garrison did not know war had been declared.) The Spanish garrison formally surrenders the island without a fight on June 21.[113][114]
June 22 - U.S. Major GeneralWilliam Rufus Shafter'sFifth Army Corps begins landing at the Cuban village ofDaiquirí, 16 miles (26 km) east of Santiago de Cuba. About 6,000 men land in a chaotic operation on the first day. Among the 16,888 troops are 15 regiments of regulars and three regiments of volunteers. Spanish ArmyLieutenant GeneralArsenio Linares y Pombo has 12,000 soldiers in the surrounding hills, but does not oppose the landings.[115] The cruiserUSS Saint Paul, commanded by CaptainCharles D. Sigsbee (former commander of theUSS Maine), disables the Spanish NavydestroyerTerror while blockading San Juan, Puerto Rico.[116]
June 23 - A division of the American Fifth Corps seizes the village ofSiboney, Cuba, without a fight. Siboney, just 9 miles (14 km) from Santiago de Cuba, becomes the corps headquarters.[115]
June 24 -Battle of Las Guasimas: Major GeneralJoseph Wheeler learns that Spanish Army forces are digging in along a ridge above El Camino Real (the "Royal Road") near the village of Las Guásimas, 3 miles (4.8 km) west of Siboney. Wheeler ordersBrigadier GeneralS. B. M. Young to lead the1st Cavalry Regiment,10th Cavalry Regiment (aracially segregated unit ofAfrican American soldiers), and the Rough Riders to attack the position, apparently knowing that Spanish Army Brigadier GeneralAntero Rubín has orders to withdraw. The Spanish — outnumbering the Americans 1,500 to 1,000, and armed with superior7mm1893 model Mauser repetition rifles firing ammunition propelled bysmokeless gunpowder — hold off the U.S. 1st Cavalry. Led by Lt. Colonel Roosevelt, three companies of the Rough Riders try to outflank the Spanish and succeed to some extent. After two hours, the Spanish withdraw as scheduled. The Americans claim victory, but were much closer to defeat.[117]
June 28 - U.S. President McKinley extends the American naval blockade to Puerto Rico. The cruiserUSS Yosemite attacks the Spanish Navy transportAntonio Lopez, which is defended by the Spanish cruisersIsabel II andAlfonso XIII. Although theAntonio Lopez is run aground near the city of San Juan and destroyed, most of her cargo (including heavy artillery) is saved by the Spanish.[116][118]
June 30 - The first 2,500 U.S. Army troops arrive in Manila Bay in the Philippines and come ashore atCavite.[118] American troops attempt a landing and are repulsed at theBattle of Tayacoba.[119]
July 1 -Battle of the Aguadores: In support of U.S. Army troops moving on Santiago de Cuba, Brigadier GeneralHenry M. Duffield leads abrigade consisting of the 33rd Michigan Volunteer Infantry, 34th Michigan Volunteer Infantry, and 9th Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry in afeint toward the Aguadores River. The railwaytrestle over the river is destroyed, preventing an American crossing. His 2,500 soldiers are stopped by about 275 Spanish Army soldiers, and Duffield withdraws.[120]Battle of El Caney: 520 Spanish Army soldiers under the command of Brigadier GeneralJoaquín Vara del Rey y Rubio hold off 6,653 men of Fifth Army Corps' 2d Division, led by Brigadier GeneralHenry Ware Lawton. Heavy ground cover delayed and exhausted the U.S. troops as they climbed the hill toward El Caney, the men had little food, the underpowered American artillery was not close enough to provide cover, and six wooden blockhouses and a small stone fort give the Spanish excellent protection. The battle begins at 6:30 A.M., and was expected to last two hours; it does not end until American troops finally overrun El Caney at 5:00 P.M. Vara del Rey is killed.[121][122]Battles of San Juan Hill and Kettle Hill: Two elements of Fifth Corps — the 1st Division, under the command of U.S. Brigadier GeneralJacob Ford Kent, and the Cavalry Division (dismounted) under the command of Executive OfficerSamuel S. Sumner (General Wheeler was ill) — assault San Juan Hill and Kettle Hill (named for the large iron sugar-cooking kettles on its slopes) overlooking Santiago de Cuba. The 15,000 American soldiers are opposed by 800 men of the Spanish Army's IV Corps under the command of General Linares. The attack on Kettle Hill is led by one element of the Cavalry Division's 1st Brigade (the 3rd U.S. Cavalry) and two elements of the Cavalry Division's 2d Brigade (the Rough Riders and the all-black 10th Cavalry). The assault is initially slowed as U.S. soldiers suffer fromheat exhaustion, but effective fire from AmericanGatling guns and "the charge up San Juan Hill" by Theodore Roosevelt's Rough Riders secure the heights. U.S. troops on Kettle Hill briefly take Spanish artillery fire from San Juan Hill until it, too, is taken relatively easily. All U.S. objectives at San Juan Heights are secure by 1:30 P.M.[123][124]
July 2 - U.S. General Shafter sends a message to Admiral Sampson, requesting that the U.S. Navy force its way into Santiago de Cuba's harbor and destroy the shore batteries and artillery there. "Sampson is appalled" as he realizes the U.S. Army has suffered such grievous losses from disease that it needs the U.S. Navy to capture the city for it.[116]
July 3 -Battle of Santiago de Cuba: On July 1, the Spanish Governor of Cuba, General Blanco, ordered Admiral Cervera to run the blockade and escape the harbor at Santiago de Cuba. Cervera does so at 9:00 A.M. on July 3, just hours after U.S. Rear Admiral Sampson leaves his fleet for an on-shore conference (leaving Commodore Schley in command of both the Flying Squadron and North Atlantic Squadron).[125][126] Cervera's fleet consists of the armored cruisersInfanta Maria Teresa (his flagship),Vizcaya,Cristóbal Colón, andAlmirante Oquendo, and the destroyersPlutón andFuror. Although Cervera surprises the American fleet by sortying during daylight, the American ships respond quickly, and are three times larger than and outgun Cervera's ships (whose weapons are in disrepair).[126][127] The Spanish Navy loses all six ships (sank orscuttled); 323 Spanish sailors are wounded, 151 killed, and 1,720 captured, while just one American sailor is killed and one is wounded.[128][129]
July 4 - Brigadier GeneralFrancis Vinton Greene of the U.S. Army's 2d Philippine Expeditionary Force seizes vacantWake Island and claims it for the United States.[130] U.S. General Shafter tells GeneralJosé Toral y Velázquez, commander of Spanish forces in Santiago de Cuba (in place of General Linares, who was wounded at San Juan Hill), that he will soon bombard the city and that all women and children should leave.[131] The Spanish Navy cruiserReina Mercedes, her engines in such disrepair she is barely able to move, leaves the harbor at Santiago de Cuba and is scuttled in the main channel at 11:30 P.M. The U.S. Navy later refloats the ship and takes it back to the United States as a war prize.[129]
July 5 - Just after midnight, the armed yachtUSS Hawk intercepts the Spanish cruiserAlfonso XIII as it flees Havana Harbor. The Spanish vessel is forced to run aground, and theHawk shells it to pieces at daylight.[129]
Somewhat fictional depiction of the beginning of the naval Battle of Santiago de Cuba.
July 7 - Worried about an American attack on the coast of Spain, the Spanish government tells Rear Admiral Cámara to bring the Spanish Navy's 2d Squadron, then at the mouth of theSuez Canal, back to Cadiz. This ends the Spanish attempt to oppose the U.S. Asiatic Fleet in the Philippines.[132] With U.S. President McKinley having pressed for it since June 11, Congress passes a joint resolution on June 6annexing Hawaii. McKinley signs the legislation on July 7, and it becomes official the following day.[133]
July 9 - The U.S. Army's Fifth Corps seals off Santiago de Cuba.[129]
July 10–11 - Spanish artillery forces at Santiago de Cuba engage in a firefight with U.S. Army artillery in the hills surrounding the city, supported by U.S. Navy cannon fire offshore.[129]
July 12 - Major GeneralNelson A. Miles, having arrived in Cuba the previous day, consults with General Shafter and Admiral Sampson about the situation in Cuba. Later that day, theUSS Eagle forces the Spanish merchant blockade runnerSanto Domingo aground on theIsla de la Juventud.[129]
July 16 - Cuban rebels seize the town ofGibara from the Spanish Army without a fight.[129]
July 17 -Siege of Santiago: Spanish general Toral offers the surrender of the 12,000 men at Santiago de Cuba, the 12,000 men at Guantánamo, and six other small Spanish Army garrisons throughout Cuba. Leonard Wood, promoted to brigadier general, accepts the surrender and is named military governor of Santiago de Cuba. Land combat effectively ends in Cuba for the duration of the war.[134]
July 21 -Battle of Nipe Bay: The U.S. Navy gunboatsUSS Annapolis andUSS Topeka, the auxiliary cruiserUSS Wasp, and the armed tugboatUSS Leyden enterNipe Bay on the northeastern coast of Cuba and find its shore battery unmanned. Inside the bay, they sink the Spanish Navy light cruiserJorge Juan, securing the bay as a rendezvous point for U.S. military forces heading to Puerto Rico.[136] The same day, General Miles leaves Guantánamo Bay with a force of 3,400 U.S. Army soldiers, bound for Puerto Rico.[137]
July 22 - The government of Spain asks the French ambassador to the United States,Jules Cambon, to request peace terms from the United States. The request is delayed by four days, as the Spanish give the code key for Cambon'sencrypted message to theAustro-Hungarian ambassador, who is vacationing.[138]
July 25 - Originally intending to land atFajardo, Puerto Rico, on July 24, the U.S. Army invasion force led by General Miles changes course overnight after learning that the American press has revealed the Fajardo destination. Instead, the auxiliary cruiserUSS Gloucester secures the port atGuánica, Puerto Rico, and U.S. troops come ashore there on July 25. American soldiers secure the main road toPonce on July 26 in the "Battle of Yauco" after a brief and bloodless skirmish.[136] U.S. General Merritt reaches Manila in the Philippines. American troops there now number 10,000, and Merritt begins military operations from Cavite to capture the city.[139]
July 26 - Having finally decrypted the Spanish government's message to him, French Ambassador Cambon passes on Spain's request for peace terms to U.S. President McKinley.[138]
July 27 - The U.S. Navy gunboat USSAnnapolis and the auxiliary cruisers USSWasp andUSS Dixie enter the undefended harbor at Ponce and threaten to bombard the town. With no Spanish official present, foreign diplomats must mediate between the U.S. Navy and the city. These diplomats telegraph the U.S. Navy's terms of surrender to the Spanish Governor-General of Puerto Rico, Manuel Macías. He reluctantly agrees to them.[140]
July 28 - The Puerto Rican city ofPonce surrenders, and is invested with 12,000 U.S. Army troops.[140]
July 29 - U.S. Army troops in the Philippines begin establishing an offensive line stretching from the beach atManila Bay inland to the Calle Real (the inland road connecting Cavite with Manila).[141]
July 31 - U.S. President McKinley gives the American terms for peace to French AmbassadorJules Cambon: Immediate independence for Cuba, and cession of Puerto Rico to the United States in compensation for its war costs.[138]
The American flag is raised over Fort Santiago after the surrender of Manila on August 13.
August 1 - Under threat of bombardment by the U.S. Navy auxiliary cruisers USSGloucester and USSWasp, the port ofArroyo, Puerto Rico, surrenders without a fight. A brief skirmish with Spanish Army cavalry occurs on August 3, after which 5,300 U.S. Army troops come ashore and occupy the town.[142]
August 4 - Spain agrees to the American peace terms. In a two-and-a-half hour meeting, U.S. President McKinley and French Ambassador Cambon draft a treaty.[138] The Spanish Governor-General of the Philippines, Basilio Augustín, is replaced withFermín Jáudenes after the Spanish government learns that Augustín attempted to surrender to U.S. Admiral George Dewey.[143] The "Round-Robin Letter" appears in U.S. newspapers. Fifth Corps departed the U.S. without proper equipment, food, or medical supplies, and is suffering from extremely poor living and sanitary conditions. The letter, written by now-Colonel Theodore Roosevelt and signed by all commanders of the corps, demands the withdrawal of the corps to the U.S. before disease decimates it. Delivered to General Shafter before its publication, U.S. Secretary of War Alger has already agreed to withdraw Fifth Corps (and does so on August 3). The American public is outraged by the scandalous living conditions under which the troops suffer.[144]
August 5 - 5,000 U.S. Army troops under the command of Major GeneralJohn R. Brooke have orders to march west along the southern coast of Puerto Rico from Arroyo to the nearby town ofGuayama, then toCoamo. They are then to turn northeast and head for the inland city ofCayey. The U.S. soldiers meet stiff resistance in Guayama, but the August 5 firefight is brief and they invest the town.[145]
August 9 - Units of Major GeneralJames H. Wilson's U.S. Army column, moving east-northeast from Ponce to Coamo and then north to the heavily concentrated Spanish Army position atAibonito, encounter heavy resistance in Coamo. Wilson's men are forced to envelope the Spanish from the rear, killing 40 and capturing 170. Wilson suffers no dead, and just six wounded.[145]
August 10 - 2,900 U.S. Army soldiers under the command of Brigadier GeneralTheodore Schwan, marching from Ponce on the south-central coast of Puerto Rico northwest toMayagüez on the western coast and then northeast toArecibo on the north coast, encounter stiff resistance by Spanish Army forces at the village ofHormigueros, Puerto Rico. One American dies and 16 are wounded before the Spanish flee.[145]
August 12 - U.S. Army General Wilson's command again runs into Spanish Army resistance, this time in the Asomante Hills near Aibonito. The Spanish are routed after a brief skirmish.[145] Spain and the United States sign anarmistice, the "Protocol of Peace".[146]
August 13 -Battle of Manila: Manila surrenders. Governor General Jáudenes, fearing Spanish troops will be massacred by the Filipinos, agrees to surrender the city after token resistance if U.S. General Wesley Merritt excludes Filipino troops from the battle. Merritt agrees. After a brief naval bombardment, the 1st Brigade under Brigadier GeneralArthur MacArthur, Jr. attacks from the south while General Greene's 2d Brigade attacks from the north. There is brief Spanish resistance to MacArthur's advance after large groups of Filipinos ignore American orders to stay behind and rush the Spanish lines. Governor General Jáudenes surrenders at 11:20 A.M. after a battle lasting two hours.[147] In Puerto Rico, U.S. Army Brigadier General Schwan's command encounters Spanish Army resistance near the town ofLas Marías. Word of the armistice has not yet reached Puerto Rico, and a brief skirmish ensues. It is the last battle of the war in Puerto Rico.[148]
August 14 - The last battle of the Spanish–American War occurs offCaibarién, Cuba, when the armed supply shipUSSMangrove fires on two Spanish Navy gunboats. The Spanish surrender, and explain that an armistice has been signed.[139]
September 13 - The Spanish national legislature, the Cortes, approves the Protocol of Peace by a vote of 161 to 48. But many deputiesabstain, indicating a deep feeling within the Cortes that the war should continue to be prosecuted.[149]
September 15 - TheMalolos Congress, the assembly of the revolutionary government of the Philippines, convenes inMalolos, Philippines. It ratifies Aguinaldo's declaration of independence, and begins drafting a constitution for an independent Republic of the Philippines.[150]
September 26 - The War Department Investigating Commission (also known as the "Dodge Commission" after its chairman, Major General [ret.]Grenville M. Dodge) begins investigating the conduct of theU.S. Department of War during the Spanish–American conflict. Vivid testimony by Major GeneralNelson A. Miles on December 21 about chemically adulterated beef bought by the department to feed soldiers in the field (the "United States Army beef scandal") leads to public outrage. The final report, issued on February 9, 1899, exonerates the War Department but subtly implies that Secretary of War Alger was an inefficient if not incompetent manager.[151] Alger denies the implication, but on July 19, 1899, he resigns (effective August 1).[152]
U.S. Secretary of StateJohn Hay signs the Treaty of Paris on December 10, 1898.
October 1 - TheParis Peace Conference begins in Paris, France. U.S. President McKinley instructs the American chief delegate,William R. Day, to seek U.S. possession of Guam, Puerto Rico, and the island ofLuzon (not the entire Philippines).[153]
October 18 - Spain officially transfers sovereignty of Puerto Rico to the United States.[154][155]
October 24 - U.S. President McKinley has a dream in which he claims God told him that the United States should seize the entire Philippines: "nothing left for us to do but to take them all, to educate the Filipinos, and uplift and Christianize them."[156]
October 26 - U.S. President McKinley instructs the American delegation at the Paris Peace Conference to seek possession of the entire Philippines:[153] "The cession must be of the whole archipelago or none. ...latter is wholly inadmissible, and the former must therefore be required".[157]
December 10 - TheTreaty of Paris is signed in Paris. Spain cedes Guam and Puerto Rico to the United States. Spain turns administration of Cuba over to the United States. The United States agrees to pay Spain $20 million in return for American possession of the Philippines.[153]
December 21 - U.S. President McKinley issues the Proclamation of Benevolent Assimilation in which he declares the U.S. should annex the Philippines "with all possible dispatch" (e.g., by use of military force if necessary).[159]
January 23 - ThePhilippine Republic, created by the Malolos Congress, comes into existence. Its capital is at Malolos and Emilio Aguinaldo is the first president.[159]
February 4 - ThePhilippine–American War breaks out when U.S. soldiers fire on four Filipino soldiers who enter the "American Zone" in Manila. This ignites theBattle of Manila, and is the first military engagement of the second Philippine war for independence.[159]
February 6 - TheUnited States Senate ratifies the Treaty of Paris by a close vote of 57 to 27. (A two-thirds majority, or 56 votes, was needed to ratify.)[153] An amendment requiring the United States to give the Philippines its independence fails afterVice PresidentGarret Hobart casts the deciding vote against it. The Senate might have declined to ratify the treaty, but the outbreak of hostilities in Manila turns the tide of feeling in the treaty's favor.[159]
March 19 - Exercising her right to "fulfil the crown's constitutional obligations and serve the national interest" by peacefully resolving political tension,Maria Cristina,Queen Regent of Spain, signs the Treaty of Paris personally. The Cortes was deeply divided over the terms of the treaty, and deadlocked over its ratification. With ratification in jeopardy, the Queen Regent dissolved the Cortes and exercised her imperial privilege — ratifying the treaty herself.[160]
^Unrecognized as a participant by the primary belligerents.
^Unrecognized as a participant by the primary belligerents.
^The United States was informally allied with Katipunan forces under Emilio Aguinaldo from the time of Aguinaldo's return to Manila on May 19, 1898, until those forces were absorbed into the dictatorial government proclaimed by Aguinaldo on May 24, 1898. These forces became part of the Revolutionary Government of the Philippines on June 12, 1898. The revolutionary government was informally allied with the United States until the end of the Spanish–American War.
^Accurate information for both the number of crew and dead are difficult vary widely.
^The act also permitted the government to float up to $100 million in war bonds with amaturity of less than a year. This proves "a turning point" in the federal government's ability to create flexible financial instruments critical to maintaining the credit of the United States.[109]
^The estate tax was not the first estate tax enacted in the history of the United States, but itsgraduated nature made it the precursor to the modern federal estate tax. The 1898 estate tax was upheld by theSupreme Court of the United States inKnowlton v. Moore, 178 U.S. 41 (1900).[110]
Barnes, Mark (2010).The Spanish–American War and Philippine Insurrection, 1898–1902: An Annotated Bibliography. Florence, Ky.: Taylor & Francis.ISBN9780415999571.
Hamilton, Richard F. (2006).President McKinley, War and Empire. Vol. 1: President McKinley and the Coming of War, 1898. New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers.ISBN9780765803290.
Johnson, Barry W.; Eller, Martha Britton (1998). "Federal Taxation of Inheritance and Wealth Transfers". In Miller, Robert K.; McNamee, Stephen J. (eds.).Inheritance and Wealth in America. New York: Plenum Press.ISBN9781489919335.
Rosa, Albert; Castro, Jorge; Blanco, Florentino (2006). "Otherness in Historically Situated Self-Experiences: A Case-Study on How Historical Events Affect the Architecture of the Self". In Simão, Lívia Mathias; Valsiner, Jaan (eds.).Otherness in Questions: Labyrinths of the Self. Greenwich, Conn.: Information Age Publishing.ISBN9781593112325.
Sweetman, Jack (2002).American Naval History: An Illustrated Chronology of the U.S. Navy and Marine Corps, 1775–Present. Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press.ISBN9781557508676.
William McKinley
Emilio Aguinaldo
Maria Christina
.jpg)
.jpg)
