Thetimeline of historic inventions is a chronological list of particularly significant technologicalinventions and theirinventors, where known.[a] This page lists nonincremental inventions that are widely recognized by reliable sources as having had a direct impact on the course of history that was profound, global, and enduring. The dates in this article make frequent use of theunits mya and kya, which refer to millions and thousands of years ago, respectively.
The dates listed in this section refer to the earliest evidence of an invention found and dated byarchaeologists (or in a few cases, suggested by indirect evidence). Dates are often approximate and change as more research is done, reported and seen. Older examples of any given technology are often found. The locations listed are for the site where the earliest solid evidence has been found, but especially for the earlier inventions, there is little certainty how close that may be to where the invention took place.
The Lower Paleolithic period lasted over 3 million years, during which there many human-like speciesevolved including toward the end of this period,Homo sapiens. The original divergence between humans andchimpanzees occurred 13 (Mya), however interbreeding continued until as recently as 4 Mya, with the first species clearly belonging to the human (and not chimpanzee) lineage beingAustralopithecus anamensis. Some species are controversial among paleoanthropologists, who disagree whether they are species on their own or not. HereHomo ergaster is included underHomo erectus, whileHomo rhodesiensis is included underHomo heidelbergensis.
During this period theQuaternary glaciation began (about 2.58 million years ago), and continues to today. It has been anice age, withcycles of 40–100,000 years alternating between long, cold, more glaciated periods, and shorter warmer periods –interglacial episodes.
320 kya: Thetrade and long-distance (up to 50 miles)transportation of resources (e.g. obsidian), use of pigments, and possible making of projectile points in Kenya[29][30][31]
The evolution ofearly modern humans around 300 kya coincides with the start of the Middle Paleolithic period. During this 250,000-year period, our relatedarchaic humans such asNeanderthals andDenisovans began to spread out of Africa, joined later byHomo sapiens. Over the course of the period we see evidence of increasingly long-distance trade, religious rites, and other behavior associated withBehavioral modernity.
279 kya:Hafting and early stone-tipped projectile weapons in Ethiopia[32]
200 kya: Simple glue (adhesive) made of one kind of material, birch tar, in Central Italy by Neanderthals.[33]
170 kya – 90 kya:Clothing, among anatomically modern humans in Africa. Genetic evidence from body lice suggests a range of dates centering over 100 thousand years ago.[37] The firstbone scrapers appropriate for scraping hides to make supple leather were found in Morocco dating to 90–120,000 years ago.[38][39]
164 kya – 47 kya: Heat treating of stone blades in South Africa.[40]
135 kya – 100 kya:Beads in Israel andAlgeria[41] — implying string or thread
50 kya was long regarded as the beginning ofbehavioral modernity, which defined the Upper Paleolithic period. The Upper Paleolithic lasted nearly 40,000 years, while research continues to push the beginnings of behavioral modernity earlier into the Middle Paleolithic. Behavioral modernity is characterized by the widespread observation of religious rites, artistic expression and the appearance of tools made for purely intellectual or artistic pursuits.
49 kya – 30 kya:Ground stone tools – fragments of an axe in Australia date to 49–45 ka, more appear in Japan closer to 30 ka, and elsewhere closer to the Neolithic.[56][57]
47 kya: The oldest-known mines in the world are from Eswatini, and extracted hematite for the production of the red pigmentochre.[58][59]
45 kya – 9 kya: Earliest evidence ofshoes, suggested by changes in foot bone morphology in China byTianyuan man.[60] The earliest physical shoes found so far are barksandals dated to 10 to 9 kya inFort Rock Cave,United States.[61] The oldest known leather shoe dated to 5.5 kya was found in excellent condition in theAreni-1 cave located in theVayots Dzor province ofArmenia.[62]
32-28 kya:Rope andCords for "hafting stone tools, weavingbaskets, or sewing garments," according to Elis Kvavadze et al.[67][68]
31 kya:Amputation andsurgery.[69]Medicine in a meaningful sense likely predates the human-chimpanzee split, as, for example, herbal medicine has been observed in other primates.[70]
28 kya:Ceramics (direct evidence) andweaving (impressions left in the ceramics) inMoravia[71][72] (Czech Republic) andGeorgia. (The oldest piece of woven cloth found so far was in Çatalhöyük, Turkey and dated to about 9,000 years ago.[73])
The end of theLast Glacial Period ("ice age") and the beginning of theHolocene around 11.7 ka coincide with theAgricultural Revolution, marking the beginning of the agricultural era, which persisted there until the industrial revolution.[96]
During the Neolithic period, lasting 8400 years, stone began to be used for construction, and remained a predominant hard material for toolmaking. Copper and arsenic bronze were developed towards the end of this period, and of course the use of many softer materials such as wood, bone, and fibers continued. Domestication spread both in the sense of how many species were domesticated, and how widespread the practice became.
8040–7510 BC: ThePesse canoe is the oldest boat we have found,[108] while early human habitation of Crete and Australia make clear human seafaring goes back tens or hundreds of thousands of years. (see above)
3500 BC:Ploughing, on a site inBubeneč, Czech Republic.[156] Evidence, c. 2800 BC, has also been found atKalibangan, Indus Valley (modern-day India).[157]
The beginning of bronze-smelting coincides with the emergence of the first cities and of writing in the Ancient Near East and the Indus Valley. TheBronze Age starting in Eurasia in the 4th millennia BC and ended, in Eurasia, c.1200 BC.
3250 BC:One of the earliest documentedhats was worn by a man (nicknamedÖtzi) whose body and hat found frozen in a mountain between Austria and Italy. He was found wearing a bearskin cap with a chin strap, made of several hides stitched together, resembling a Russian fur hat without the flaps.[167][168][169]
3200 BC: DryLatrines in the city ofUruk, Iraq, with later dry squatToilets, that added raised fired brick foot platforms, and pedestal toilets, all over clay pipe constructed drains.[170][171][172]
3000 BC: Devices functionally equivalent todice, in the form of flat two-sided throwsticks, are seen in the Egyptian game ofSenet.[173] Perhaps the oldest known dice, resembling modern ones, were excavated as part of abackgammon-like game set at theBurnt City, an archeological site in south-easternIran, estimated to be from between 2800 and 2500 BC.[174][175] Later, terracotta dice were used at the Indus Valley site ofMohenjo-daro (modern-day Pakistan).[176]
3000 BC – 2800 BC:Prosthesis first documented in theAncient Near East, in ancient Egypt and Iran, specifically for an eye prosthetics, the eye found in Iran was likely made of bitumen paste that was covered with a thin layer of gold.[184]
2200 BC:Protractor, Phase IV,Lothal, Indus Valley (modern-day India), aXancus shell cylinder with sawn grooves, at right angles, in its top and bottom surfaces, has been proposed as an angle marking tool.[207][208]
2000 BC:Water clock by at least the old Babylonian period (c. 2000 – c. 1600 BC),[209] but possibly earlier from Mohenjo-Daro in the Indus Valley.[210]
TheLate Bronze Age collapse occurs around 1200 BC,[224] extinguishing most Bronze-Age Near Eastern cultures, and significantly weakening the rest. This is coincident with the complete collapse of theIndus Valley Civilisation. This event is followed by the beginning of the Iron Age. We define the Iron Age as ending in 510 BC for the purposes of this article, even though the typical definition is region-dependent (e.g. 510 BC in Greece, 322 BC in India, 200 BC in China), thus being an 800-year period.[e]
7th century BC: The royalLibrary of Ashurbanipal atNineveh had 30,000 clay tablets, in several languages, organized according to shape and separated by content. The first recorded example of alibrary catalog.[229]
688 BC: Waterproof concrete in use, by the Assyrians.[230] Later, the Romans developed concretes that could set underwater,[231] and used concrete extensively for construction from 300 BC to 476 AD.[232]
With the Greco-Romantrispastos ("three-pulley-crane"), the simplestancient crane, a single man tripled the weight he could lift than with his muscular strength alone.[237]
6th century – 2nd century BC: Systematization of medicine and surgery in theSushruta Samhita in Vedic Northern India.[241][242][243] Documented procedures to:
Performcataract surgery (couching). Babylonian and Egyptian texts, a millennium before, depict and mention oculists, but not the procedure itself.[244]
500 – 200 BC:Toe stirrup, depicted in 2nd century Buddhist art, of the Sanchi and Bhaja Caves, of the DeccanSatavahana empire (modern-day India)[252][253] although may have originated as early as 500 BC.[254]
5th century BC:Cast iron inAncient China: Confirmed by archaeological evidence, the earliest cast iron is developed in China by the early 5th century BC during theZhou dynasty (1122–256 BC), the oldest specimens found in a tomb of Luhe County inJiangsu province.[257][258][259]
By the 3rd century BC:Water wheel. The origin is unclear: Indian Pali texts dating to the 4th century BCE refer to thecakkavattaka, which later commentaries describe asarahatta-ghati-yanta (machine with wheel-pots attached). Helaine Selin suggests that the device existed in Persia before 350 BC.[284] The clearest description of the water wheel andliquid-driven escapement is provided byPhilo of Byzantium (c. 280 – 220 BC) in the Hellenistic kingdoms.[285]
3rd century BC:Gimbal described by Philo of Byzantium[286]
3rd century BC – 2nd century BC:Blast furnace inAncient China: The earliest discovered blast furnaces in China date to the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC, although most sites are from the laterHan dynasty.[257][288]
1st century BC: News bulletin during the reign of Julius Caesar.[295] A paper form, i.e. the earliestnewspaper, later appeared during the late Han dynasty in the form of theDibao.[296][297][298]
4th century: RomanDichroic glass, which displays one of two different colors depending on lighting conditions.
4th century:Simple suspension bridge, independently invented in Pre-Columbian South America, and theHindu Kush range, of present-dayAfghanistan andPakistan. With Han dynasty travelers noting bridges being constructed from 3 or more vines or 3 ropes.[328] Later bridges constructed utilizing cables of iron chains appeared in Tibet.[329][330]
4th century:Fishing reel inAncient China: In literary records, the earliest evidence of the fishing reel comes from a 4th-century AD[331] work entitledLives of Famous Immortals.[332]
400: The construction of theIron pillar of Delhi inMathura by theGupta Empire shows the development of rust-resistant ferrous metallurgy in Ancient India,[335][336] although original texts do not survive to detail the specific processes invented in this period.
7th century:Porcelain inTang dynastyChina: True porcelain is manufactured in northern China from roughly the beginning of the Tang dynasty in the 7th century, while true porcelain was not manufactured in southern China until about 300 years later, during the early 10th century.[356]
10th century:Fire lance inSong dynastyChina, developed in the 10th century with a tube of first bamboo and later on metal that shot a weakgunpowder blast of flame and shrapnel, its earliest depiction is a painting found atDunhuang.[367] Fire lance is the earliestfirearm in the world and one of the earliest gunpowder weapons.[368][369]
10th century:Fireworks inSong dynastyChina: Fireworks first appear in China during the Song dynasty (960–1279), in the early age ofgunpowder. Fireworks could be purchased from market vendors; these were made of sticks ofbamboo packed with gunpowder.[370]
13th century:Buttons (combined with buttonholes) as a functional fastening for closing clothes appear first inGermany.[380]
13th century:Explosive bomb inJin dynasty Manchuria: Explosive bombs are used in 1221 by theJin dynasty against aSong dynasty city.[381] The first accounts of bombs made of cast iron shells packed with explosive gunpowder are documented in the 13th century in China and are called "thunder-crash bombs",[382] coined during aJin dynasty naval battle in 1231.[383]
13th century:Hand cannon inYuan dynasty China: The earliest hand cannon dates to the 13th century based on archaeological evidence from aHeilongjiang excavation. There is also written evidence in theYuanshi (1370) on Li Tang, anethnic Jurchen commander under the Yuan dynasty who in 1288 suppresses the rebellion of the Christian prince Nayan with his "gun-soldiers" orchongzu, this being the earliest known event where this phrase is used.[384]
13th century: Earliest documentedsnow goggles, a type of sunglasses, made of flattened walrus or caribou ivory are used by the Inuit peoples in the arctic regions of North America.[385][386] In China, the first sunglasses consisting of flat panes ofsmoky quartz are documented.[387][388]
1277:Land mine inSong dynastyChina: Textual evidence suggests that the first use of a land mine in history is by a Song dynasty brigadier general known as Lou Qianxia, who uses an 'enormous bomb' (huo pao) to killMongol soldiers invadingGuangxi in 1277.[391]
14th century:Naval mine inMing dynasty Mentioned in theHuolongjing military manuscript written byJiao Yu (fl. 14th to early 15th century) andLiu Bowen (1311–1375), describing naval mines used at sea or on rivers and lakes, made ofwrought iron and enclosed in an ox bladder. A later model is documented inSong Yingxing's encyclopedia written in 1637.[397]
1608:Telescope: Patent applied for byHans Lippershey. Actual inventor unknown since it seemed to already be a common item being offered by the spectacle makers in the Netherlands withJacob Metius also applying for patent and the son ofZacharias Janssen making a claim 47 years later that his father invented it.
1812:William Reid Clanny pioneered the invention of thesafety lamp which he improved in later years. Safety lamps based on Clanny's improved design were used until the adoption of electric lamps.
1822:Thomas Blanchard invents the pattern-tracing lathe (actually more like ashaper). The lathe can copy symmetrical shapes and is used for making gun stocks, and later, ax handles.[468][469]
1851:George Jennings offers the first public flush toilets, accessible for a penny per visit, and in 1852 receives a UK patent for the single piece, free standing, earthenware, trap plumed, flushing, water-closet.[484]
1856:James Harrison produces the world's first practical ice making machine and refrigerator using the principle of vapour compression in Geelong, Australia.[486]
1876:Alexander Graham Bell has a patent granted for thetelephone.[403] However, other inventors before Bell had worked on the development of the telephone and the invention had several pioneers.[492]
1879:Joseph Swan andThomas Edison both patent a functionalincandescent light bulb.[403] Some two dozen inventors had experimented with electric incandescent lighting over the first three-quarters of the 19th century but never came up with a practical design.[495] Swan's, which he had been working on since the 1860s, had a low resistance so was only suited for small installations. Edison designed a high-resistance bulb as part of a large-scale commercial electric lighting utility.[496][497][498]
1884: Hungarian engineersKároly Zipernowsky,Ottó Bláthy andMiksa Déri invent the closed core high efficiency transformer and the AC parallel power distribution.
1893:William Stewart Halsted, invents therubber glove for his wifeCaroline Hampton as he noticed her hands were affected by the daily surgeries she had performed. The gloves were intended to prevent medical staff from developingdermatitis from surgical chemicals.[508][509][510] The first modern disposable glove was created by Ansell Rubber Co. Pty. Ltd. in 1965.[511][512][513]
1895:Guglielmo Marconi invents the radio, a system of wireless communication using radio waves.[403]
1915: The first operational militarytanks are designed in Great Britain and France. They are used in battle from 1916 and 1917 respectively. The designers in Great Britain areWalter Wilson andWilliam Tritton and in France,Eugène Brillié. (Although it is known that vehicles incorporating at least some of the features of the tank were designed in a number of countries from 1903 onward, none reached a practical form.)
1928:Frank Whittle formally submitted his ideas for a turbo-jet engine. In October 1929, he developed his ideas further.[529] On 16 January 1930, Whittle submitted his first patent (granted in 1932).[530]
1948:Basic oxygen steelmaking is developed byRobert Durrer. The majority of steel manufactured in the world is produced using the basic oxygen furnace; in 2000, it accounted for 60% of global steel output.[549]
1953: The firstvideo tape recorder, a helical scan recorder, is invented by Norikazu Sawazaki.
1954: Invention of the solar battery by Bell Telephone scientists,Calvin Souther Fuller, Daryl Chapin and Gerald Pearson capturing the Sun's power. First practical means of collecting energy from the Sun and turning it into a current of electricity.
1959: TheMOSFET (MOS transistor) is invented by the EgyptianMohamed Atalla and the KoreanDawon Kahng at Bell Labs. It is used in almost all modernelectronic products. It was smaller, faster, more reliable and cheaper to manufacture than earlier bipolar transistors, leading to a revolution in computers, controls and communication.[555][556][557]
1963: The firstelectronic cigarette is created by Herbert A. Gilbert.Hon Lik is often credited with its invention as he developed the modern electronic cigarette and was the first to commercialize it.[558]
1975: First general purposehome automation network technology, X10, was developed[575]
1977: Dr Walter Gilbert and Frederick Sanger invented a newDNA sequencing method for which they won theNobel Prize.[576]
1977: The firstself-driving car that did not rely upon rails or wires under the road is designed by the Tsukuba Mechanical Engineering Laboratory.[577]
1981:Comvik, a Swedish telecommunications company, launched the first commercial automatic cellular system. However, according to theSwedish Post and Telecom Authority, the company launched an unlicensed automatic system. Comvik didn't receive a license to operate until December 1981, two months after the NMT system was launched.[590][591]
1982: ACD-ROM containsdata accessible to, but not writable by, a computer for data storage and music playback. The 1985Yellow Book standard developed bySony andPhilips adapted the format to hold any form ofbinary data.[592]
1989:Karlheinz Brandenburg would publish the audio compression algorithms that would be standardised as the: MPEG-1, layer 3 (mp3), and later the MPEG-2, layer 7 Advanced Audio Compression (AAC).[603]
1994: First generation ofBluetooth is developed byEricsson Mobile. A form of data communication on short distances between electronic devices[614][615]
1996:Myriad Genetics released the BRACAnalysis, the first commercial genetic test for assessing the risk of hereditary breast and ovarian cancer.[626][627]
^Dates for inventions are often controversial. Sometimes inventions are invented by several inventors around the same time, or may be invented in an impractical form many years before another inventor improves the invention into a more practical form. Where there is ambiguity, the date of the first known working version of the invention is used here.
^Earthen pipes were later used in the Indus Valley c. 2700 BC for a city-scale urban drainage system,[145] and more durable copper drainage pipes appeared in Egypt, by the time of the construction of thePyramid of Sahure atAbusir, c.2400 BCE.[146]
^Shell, Terracotta, Copper, and Ivory rulers were in use by theIndus Valley civilisation in what today is Pakistan, and North West India, prior to 1500 BCE.[187]
^A competing claim is fromLothal dockyard in India,[195][196][197][198][199] constructed at some point between 2400-2000 BC;[200] however, more precise dating does not exist.
^The uncertainty in dating several Indian developments between 600 BC and 300 AD, due to the tradition that existed of editing existing documents (such as the Sushruta Samhita and Arthashastra) without specifically documenting the edit. Most such documents were canonized at the start of the Gupta empire (mid-3rd century AD).
^A 10th century AD,Damascus steel blade, analysed under an electron microscope, contains nano-meter tubes in its metal alloy. Their presence has been suggested to be down to transition-metal impurities in the ores once used to produce Wootz Steel in South India.[240]
^Although it is recorded that the Han dynasty (202 BC – AD 220) court eunuchCai Lun (born c. 50–121 AD) invented the pulp papermaking process and established the use of new raw materials used in making paper, ancient padding and wrapping paper artifacts dating to the 2nd century BC have been found in China, the oldest example of pulp papermakingbeing a map fromFangmatan,Gansu.[290]
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^Needham, Joseph (22 January 2001).Science and Civilisation in China. Volume 6: Biology and biological technology. Part V: Fermentations and food science. Cambridge University Press.ISBN0-521-65270-7.
^Rao, N. Kameswara (December 2005)."Aspects of prehistoric astronomy in India"(PDF).Bulletin of the Astronomical Society of India.33 (4):499–511.Bibcode:2005BASI...33..499R. Retrieved11 May 2007.It appears that two artifacts from Mohenjadaro and Harappa might correspond to these two instruments. Joshi and Parpola (1987) lists a few pots tapered at the bottom and having a hole on the side from the excavations at Mohenjadaro (Figure 3). A pot with a small hole to drain the water is very similar to clepsydras described by Ohashi to measure the time (similar to the utensil used over the lingum in Shiva temple for abhishekam).
^David S. Anthony,The Horse, The Wheel and Language: How bronze age riders from the Eurasian steppes shaped the modern world (2007), pp. 397-405.
^Levey, Martin (1959).Chemistry and Chemical Technology in Ancient Mesopotamia.Elsevier. p. 36.As already mentioned, the textual evidence for Sumero-Babylonian distillation is disclosed in a group of Akkadian tablets describing perfumery operations, dated ca. 1200 B.C.
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^Jacobsen T and Lloyd S, (1935) "Sennacherib's Aqueduct at Jerwan",Oriental Institute Publications 24, Chicago University Press
^Lechtman and Hobbs "Roman Concrete and the Roman Architectural Revolution"
^"The History of Concrete". Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign.Archived from the original on 27 November 2012. Retrieved8 January 2013.
^M. Kroll, review of G. Le Rider'sLa naissance de la monnaie,Schweizerische Numismatische Rundschau80 (2001), p. 526. D. Sear, Greek Coins and Their Values Vol. 2, Seaby, London, 1979, p. 317.
^Hoernle, A. F. Rudolf (1907).Studies in the Medicine of Ancient India: Osteology or the Bones of the Human Body. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press.
^Wendy Doniger (2014), On Hinduism, Oxford University Press,ISBN978-0199360079, page 79; Sarah Boslaugh (2007), Encyclopedia of Epidemiology, Volume 1, SAGE Publications,ISBN978-1412928168, page 547,Quote: "The Hindu text known as Sushruta Samhita is possibly the earliest effort to classify diseases and injuries"
^Meulenbeld, Gerrit Jan (1999).A History of Indian Medical Literature. Groningen: Brill (all volumes, 1999-2002).ISBN978-9069801247.
^Frankel, Rafael (2003): "The Olynthus Mill, Its Origin, and Diffusion: Typology and Distribution",American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 107, No. 1, pp. 1–21 (17–19)
^Ritti, Tullia; Grewe, Klaus; Kessener, Paul (2007): "A Relief of a Water-powered Stone Saw Mill on a Sarcophagus at Hierapolis and its Implications",Journal of Roman Archaeology, Vol. 20, pp. 138–163 (159)
^"Reserve Bank of India - Publications".In ancient India, loan deed forms called rnapatra or rnalekhya were in use. These contained details such as the name of the debtor and the creditor, the amount of loan, the rate of interest, the condition of repayment and the time of repayment. The deed was witnessed by a person of respectable means and endorsed by the loan-deed writer. Execution of loan deeds continued during the Buddhist period, when they were called inapanna.
^Elinor Dewire and Dolores Reyes-Pergioudakis (2010).The Lighthouses of Greece. Sarasota: Pineapple Press.ISBN978-1-56164-452-0, pp 1-5.
^Beckmann, Martin (2002): "The 'Columnae Coc(h)lides' of Trajan and Marcus Aurelius",Phoenix, Vol. 56, No. 3/4, pp. 348–357 (354)
^Ruggeri, Stefania (2006): "Selinunt", Edizioni Affinità Elettive, Messina,ISBN88-8405-079-0, p. 77
^M. J. T. Lewis, "The Origins of the Wheelbarrow",Technology and Culture, Vol. 35, No. 3. (July 1994), pp. 470
^Needham, Joseph (1965).Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2, Mechanical Engineering; rpr. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd., page 265
^Matson, John (21 August 2009)."The Origin of Zero".Scientific American. Retrieved5 August 2025.
^abJoseph F. O'Callaghan; Donald J. Kagay; Theresa M. Vann (1998).On the Social Origins of Medieval Institutions: Essays in Honor of Joseph F. O'Callaghan. BRILL. p. 179.ISBN978-90-04-11096-0.Developed in China between the fifth and fourth centuries BC, it reached the Mediterranean by the sixth century AD
^"Reserve Bank of India - Publications".In the Mauryan period, an instrument called adesha was in use, which was an order on a banker desiring him to pay the money of the note to a third person
^Vergiani, Vincenzo (2017), "Bhartrhari on Language, Perception, and Consciousness", in Ganeri, Jonardon (ed.),The Oxford Handbook of Indian Philosophy, Oxford University Press
^Craddock et al. 1983. (The earliest evidence for the production of zinc comes from India. Srinivasan, Sharda and Srinivasa Rangnathan. 2004)
^Rina Shrivastva (1999)."Smelting furnaces in Ancient India"(PDF). Indian Journal of History & Science,34(1), Digital Library of India. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 25 April 2012. Retrieved4 November 2011.
^Moore, Frank Gardner (1950): "Three Canal Projects, Roman and Byzantine",American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 54, No. 2, pp. 97–111 (99–101)
^Froriep, Siegfried (1986): "Ein Wasserweg in Bithynien. Bemühungen der Römer, Byzantiner und Osmanen",Antike Welt, 2nd Special Edition, pp. 39–50 (46)
^Schörner, Hadwiga (2000): "Künstliche Schiffahrtskanäle in der Antike. Der sogenannte antike Suez-Kanal",Skyllis, Vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 28–43 (33–35, 39)
^Oleson, John Peter (1984),Greek and Roman Mechanical Water-Lifting Devices: The History of a Technology, University of Toronto Press, p. 33,ISBN90-277-1693-5
^Schnitter, Niklaus (1987): "Verzeichnis geschichtlicher Talsperren bis Ende des 17. Jahrhunderts", in: Garbrecht, Günther (ed.):Historische Talsperren, Verlag Konrad Wittwer, Stuttgart, Vol. 1,ISBN3-87919-145-X, pp. 9–20 (12)
^Schnitter, Niklaus (1987): "Die Entwicklungsgeschichte der Bogenstaumauer", Garbrecht, Günther (ed.):Historische Talsperren, Vol. 1, Verlag Konrad Wittwer, Stuttgart,ISBN3-87919-145-X, pp. 75–96 (80)
^Hodge, A. Trevor (2000): "Reservoirs and Dams", in:Wikander, Örjan:Handbook of Ancient Water Technology, Technology and Change in History, Vol. 2, Brill, Leiden,ISBN90-04-11123-9, pp. 331–339 (332, fn. 2)
^Sleeswyk AW, Sivin N (1983). "Dragons and toads: the Chinese seismoscope of BC. 132".Chinese Science.6:1–19.
^Needham, Joseph (1959).Science and Civilization in China, Volume 3: Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 626–635.Bibcode:1959scc3.book.....N.
^Ritti, Tullia; Grewe, Klaus; Kessener, Paul (2007): "A Relief of a Water-powered Stone Saw Mill on a Sarcophagus at Hierapolis and its Implications",Journal of Roman Archaeology, Vol. 20, pp. 138–163 (140, 161)
^Shaffer, Lynda N., "Southernization",Agricultural and Pastoral Societies in Ancient and Classical History edited by Michael Adas, pp. 311, Temple University Press,ISBN1-56639-832-0.
^Hsü, Immanuel C. Y. (1970).The Rise of Modern China. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 830.ISBN0-19-501240-2.
^Wilson, Andrew (1995): "Water-Power in North Africa and the Development of the Horizontal Water-Wheel",Journal of Roman Archaeology, Vol. 8, pp. 499–510 (507f.)
^Wikander, Örjan (2000): "The Water-Mill" in: Wikander, Örjan (ed.):Handbook of Ancient Water Technology, Technology and Change in History, Vol. 2, Brill, Leiden,ISBN90-04-11123-9, pp. 371–400 (377)
^Donners, K.; Waelkens, M.; Deckers, J. (2002): "Water Mills in the Area of Sagalassos: A Disappearing Ancient Technology",Anatolian Studies, Vol. 52, pp. 1–17 (13)
^Leibs, Andrew (2004).Sports and Games of the Renaissance. Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group.ISBN978-0-313-32772-8.
^Estes, Rebecca; Robinson, Dindy (1996).World Cultures Through Art Activities. Englewood, CO: Teachers Ideas Press.ISBN978-1-56308-271-9.
^Needham, Joseph. (1986d). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 3, Civil Engineering and Nautics. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd.ISBN0-521-07060-0, 187–189.
^Galliazzo, Vittorio (1995): "I ponti romani", Vol. 1, Edizioni Canova, Treviso,ISBN88-85066-66-6, p. 92
^Warren, John (1991): "Creswell's Use of the Theory of Dating by the Acuteness of the Pointed Arches in Early Muslim Architecture",Muqarnas, Vol. 8, pp. 59–65 (61–63)
^Jack KellyGunpowder: Alchemy, Bombards, and Pyrotechnics: The History of the Explosive that Changed the World, Perseus Books Group: 2005,ISBN0465037224, 9780465037223: pp. 2-5
^Lo, A. (2009). "The game of leaves: An inquiry into the origin of Chinese playing cards".Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies.63 (3):389–406.doi:10.1017/S0041977X00008466.S2CID159872810.
^Needham 2004, p. 328 "it is also now rather well-established that dominoes and playing-cards were originally Chinese developments from dice."
^Needham 2004, p. 332 "Numbered dice, anciently widespread, were on a related line of development which gave rise to dominoes and playing-cards (+9th-century China)."
^Needham (1986), Volume 5, Part 7, 224–225, 232–233, 241–244.
^Bosworth, C. E. (1981). "A Mediaeval Islamic Prototype of the Fountain Pen?".Journal of Semitic Studies.26 (1):229–234.doi:10.1093/jss/26.2.229....not more than a few days passed before the craftsman, to whom the construction of this contrivance had been described, brought in the pen, fashioned from gold. He then filled it with ink and wrote with it, and it really did write. The pen released a little more ink than was necessary. Hence al-Mu'izz ordered that it should be adjusted slightly, and he did this. He brought forward the pen and behold, it turned out to be a pen which can be turned upside down in the hand and tipped from side to side, and no trace of ink appears from it. When a secretary takes up the pen and writes with it, he is able to write in the most elegant script that could possibly be desired; then, when he lifts the pen off the sheet of writing material, it holds in the ink. I observed that it was a wonderful piece of work, the like of which I had never imagined I would ever see.
^Lynn White: "The Act of Invention: Causes, Contexts, Continuities and Consequences",Technology and Culture, Vol. 3, No. 4 (Autumn, 1962), pp. 486–500 (497f. & 500)
^Agnew, J. (2024). The nineteenth century evolution of the threshing machine in Britain.The International Journal for the History of Engineering & Technology,94(2), 152–177. https://doi.org/10.1080/17581206.2024.2391455
^Izuo, M (2004). "Medical history: Seishu Hanaoka and his success in breast cancer surgery under general anesthesia two hundred years ago".Breast Cancer.11 (4). Tokyo, Japan:319–324.doi:10.1007/bf02968037.PMID15604985.S2CID43428862.
^Applied Nutrition and Food Technology, Jesse D. Dagoon, 1989; p. 2.
^"What Is Braille?".The American Foundation for the Blind. Retrieved11 April 2023.
^Thomas, Robert M. (1 September 1969). "Early History of Butyl Rubber. Charles Goodyear Medal Address—1969".Rubber Chemistry and Technology.42 (4):G90 –G96.doi:10.5254/1.3539292.ISSN1943-4804.
^Friedel, Robert, and Paul Palestine. 1986.Edison's electric light: biography of an invention. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press. pages 115–117
^Kenneth E. Hendrickson III, The Encyclopedia of the Industrial Revolution in World History, Volume 3, Rowman & Littlefield – 2014, page 564
^Maury Klein, The Power Makers: Steam, Electricity, and the Men Who Invented Modern America, Bloomsbury Publishing USA – 2010, Chapter 9 – The Cowbird, The Plugger, and the Dreamer
^David O. Whitten, Bessie Emrick Whitten, Handbook of American Business History: Manufacturing, Greenwood Publishing Group, 1990, pages 315-316
^von Pechmann, H. (1898)."Ueber Diazomethan und Nitrosoacylamine".Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft zu Berlin.31 (3):2640–2646.doi:10.1002/cber.18980310314.page 643: Erwähnt sei noch, dass aus einer ätherischen Diazomethanlösung sich beim Stehen manchmal minimale Quantitäten eines weissen, flockigen, aus Chloroform krystallisirenden Körpers abscheiden; ... (It should be mentioned that from an ether solution of diazomethane, upon standing, sometimes small quantities of a white, flakey substance, which can be crystallized from chloroform, precipitate; ... )
^Gantz, Carroll (21 September 2012). The Vacuum Cleaner: A History. McFarland. p. 49
^abPlutonium 239Archived 18 January 2020 at theWayback Machine, EDP-Sciences (EDITIONS DE PHYSIQUE) (& the Institut National de Physique Nucléaire et Physique des Particules (IN2P3) accessed 9 January 2020
^McCorduck 2004, pp. 123–125 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFMcCorduck2004 (help),Crevier 1993, pp. 44–46 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFCrevier1993 (help) andRussell & Norvig 2021, p. 17 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFRussellNorvig2021 (help)
^Kumar, Aran (2014). "Optical amplifier: A key element of high speed optical network".2014 International Conference on Issues and Challenges in Intelligent Computing Techniques (ICICT). IEEE. pp. 450–452.doi:10.1109/ICICICT.2014.6781324.ISBN978-1-4799-2900-9.S2CID32667559.
^John S, Quarterman; Josiah C, Hoskins (1986)."Notable computer networks".Communications of the ACM.29 (10):932–971.doi:10.1145/6617.6618.S2CID25341056.The first packet-switching network was implemented at the National Physical Laboratories in the United Kingdom. It was quickly followed by the ARPANET in 1969.
^Haughney Dare-Bryan, Christine (22 June 2023).Computer Freaks (Podcast). Chapter Two: In the Air. Inc. Magazine. 35:55 minutes in.Leonard Kleinrock: Donald Davies ... did make a single node packet switch before ARPA did
^abAbbate, Jane (2000).Inventing the Internet. MIT Press. pp. 37–8,58–9.ISBN978-0-262-26133-3.The NPL group influenced a number of American computer scientists in favor of the new technique, and they adopted Davies's term "packet switching" to refer to this type of network. Roberts also adopted some specific aspects of the NPL design.
^"Computer Pioneers - Donald W. Davies".IEEE Computer Society. Retrieved20 February 2020.The design of the ARPA network (ArpaNet) was entirely changed to adopt this technique.;"Donald Davies".www.internethalloffame.org. Retrieved20 April 2022.the ARPANET received his network design enthusiastically and the NPL local network became the first two computer networks in the world using the technique.
^Nick Taylor. Laser: The Inventor, the Nobel Laureate, and the Thirty-Year Patent War. Simon & Schuster. 2000
^Cerf, V.; Kahn, R. (1974)."A Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication"(PDF).IEEE Transactions on Communications.22 (5):637–648.Bibcode:1974ITCom..22..637C.doi:10.1109/TCOM.1974.1092259.ISSN1558-0857.The authors wish to thank a number of colleagues for helpful comments during early discussions of international network protocols, especially R. Metcalfe, R. Scantlebury, D. Walden, and H. Zimmerman; D. Davies and L. Pouzin who constructively commented on the fragmentation and accounting issues; and S. Crocker who commented on the creation and destruction of associations.
^"The internet's fifth man".The Economist. 30 November 2013.ISSN0013-0613. Retrieved22 April 2020.In the early 1970s Mr Pouzin created an innovative data network that linked locations in France, Italy and Britain. Its simplicity and efficiency pointed the way to a network that could connect not just dozens of machines, but millions of them. It captured the imagination of Dr Cerf and Dr Kahn, who included aspects of its design in the protocols that now power the internet.
^Rye, Dave (October 1999)."My Life at X10".AV and Automation Industry eMagazine. Archived fromthe original on 30 September 2014. Retrieved8 October 2014.
^Cook-Deegan, Robert (1995).The gene wars: science, politics, and the human genome (1. publ. as a Norton paperback ed.). New York NY: Norton.ISBN978-0-393-31399-4.
^Bishop, Jerry E.; Waldholz, Michael (1990).Genome: the story of the most astonishing scientific adventure of our time; the attempt to map all the genes in the human body. New York: Simon & Schuster.ISBN978-0-671-74032-0.
^Al-Khouri, Ali M. (2015). "Towards a SIM-less Existence: The Evolution of Smart Learning Networks".Educational Technology.55 (1):19–26.ISSN0013-1962.JSTOR44430335.
^"Tim Berners Lee – Time 100 People of the Century".Time Magazine. Archived fromthe original on 3 February 2011. Retrieved17 May 2010.He wove the World Wide Web and created a mass medium for the 21st century. The World Wide Web is Berners-Lee's alone. He designed it. He loosed it on the world. And he more than anyone else has fought to keep it open, nonproprietary and free.
^Hecht, Jeff (2004).City of light: the story of fiber optics. The Sloan technology series (Rev. and expanded ed., 1. paperback [ed.] ed.). Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.ISBN978-0-19-510818-7.
^Kissinger, Henry; Schmidt, Eric; Huttenlocher, Daniel P. (2021).The age of AI: and our human future. Schuyler Schouten (First edition ed.). New York Boston London: Little, Brown and Company.ISBN978-0-316-27380-0.
Bowman, John S. (2000).Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture. New York: Columbia University Press.ISBN0-231-11004-9.
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Day, Lance and Ian McNeil. (1996).Biographical Dictionary of the History of Technology. New York: Routledge.ISBN0-415-06042-7.
de Vos, Mariette (2011). "The Rural Landscape of Thugga: Farms, Presses, Mills, and Transport". In Bowman, Alan; Wilson, Andrew (eds.).The Roman Agricultural Economy: Organization, Investment, and Production. Oxford:Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-966572-3.
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One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in thepublic domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Acta Diurna".Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 1 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 159.
