This is atimeline of major events in thehistory of Jerusalem; a city that has been fought over sixteen times over millennia.[1] During its history, Jerusalem has been destroyed twice, besieged 23 times, attacked 52 times, and captured and recaptured 44 times.[2]
New Kingdom at its maximum territorial extent in the 15th century BCE
c. 2000 BCE: First known mention of the city, using the nameRušalimum, in theMiddle Kingdom EgyptianExecration texts; although the identification ofRušalimum as Jerusalem has been challenged.[3][4][5] The Semitic rootS-L-M in the name is thought to refer to either "peace" (Salam or Shalom in modern Arabic and Hebrew) orShalim, the god of dusk in theCanaanite religion.
Jerusalem becomes the capital of theKingdom of Judah and, according to the Bible, for the first few decades even of a wider united kingdom of Judah and Israel, under kings belonging to theHouse of David.
c. 830 BCE:Hazael ofAram Damascus conquers most of Canaan. According to the Bible,Jehoash of Judah gave all of Jerusalem's treasures as a tribute, but Hazael proceeded to destroy "all the princes of the people" in the city.
c. 712 BCE: TheSiloam Tunnel is built in order to keep water from theGihon Spring inside the city. According to the Bible, the tunnel was built by KingHezekiah in preparation for a siege by the Assyrians, along with an expansion of Jerusalem's fortifications across theTyropoeon Valley to enclose the hill today known asMount Zion.[8]
365/364-362 and c. 347 BCE: Judea participates in Egyptian-inspired andSidonian-led revolts against the Achaemenids, and coins minted in Jerusalem are reflecting the short-lived autonomy.[11][12] Achaemenid generalBagoas is possibly the same as 'Bagoses' inJosephus'Antiquities, who defiles the Temple and imposes taxes on sacrifices performed there.[11][13][14]
Kingdoms of the Diadochi and others before the battle of Ipsus, c. 303 BCEThe Seleucid Empire in c. 200 BCEHasmonean Kingdom at its greatest extent underSalome Alexandra
312 BCE: Jerusalem is re-captured by Ptolemy I Soter after he defeats Antigonus' sonDemetrius I at theBattle of Gaza. It is probable that Seleucus I Nicator, then an Admiral under Ptolemy's command, also took part in the battle, as following the battle he was given 800 infantry and 200 cavalry and immediately travelled toBabylon where he founded theSeleucid Empire.
311 BCE: The Antigonid dynasty regains control of the city after Ptolemy withdraws from Syria again following a minor defeat by Antigonus I Monophthalmus, and a peace treaty is concluded.
302 BCE: Ptolemy invades Syria for a third time, but evacuated again shortly thereafter following false news of a victory for Antigonus againstLysimachus (another of the Diadochi).
301 BCE:Coele-Syria (Southern Syria) including Jerusalem is re-captured by Ptolemy I Soter after Antigonus I Monophthalmus is killed at theBattle of Ipsus. Ptolemy had not taken part in the battle, and the victors Seleucus I Nicator and Lysimachus had carved up the Antigonid Empire between them, with Southern Syria intended to become part of the Seleucid Empire. AlthoughSeleucus did not attempt to conquer the area he was due, Ptolemy's pre-emptive move led to theSyrian Wars which began in 274 BC between the successors of the two leaders.
175 BCE:Antiochus IV Epiphanes succeeds his father and becomes King of the Seleucid Empire. He accelerates Seleucid efforts to eradicate theJewish religion by forcing the Jewish High PriestOnias III to step down in favour of his brotherJason, who was replaced byMenelaus three years later. He outlawsSabbath andcircumcision, sacks Jerusalem and erects an altar toZeus in the Second Temple after plundering it.
164 BC 25Kislev: TheMaccabees capture Jerusalem following theBattle of Beth Zur, and rededicate the Temple (seeHanukkah). TheHasmoneans take control of part of Jerusalem, while the Seleucids retain control of theAcra (fortress) in the city and most surrounding areas.
160 BCE: The Seleucids retake control of the whole of Jerusalem afterJudas Maccabeus is killed at theBattle of Elasa, marking the end of the Maccabean revolt.
134 BCE: Seleucid KingAntiochus VII Sidetes recaptures the city. John Hyrcanus opened KingDavid's sepulchre and removed three thousand talents which he paid astribute to spare the city (according toJosephus.[16]) John Hyrcanus remains as governor, becoming avassal to theSeleucids
116 BCE: A civil war between Seleucid half-brothersAntiochus VIII Grypus andAntiochus IX Cyzicenus results in a breakup of the kingdom and the independence of certain principalities, including Judea.[17][18]
110 BCE: John Hyrcanus carries out the first military conquests of the independent Hasmonean kingdom, raising a mercenary army to captureMadaba andSchechem, significantly increasing the regional influence of Jerusalem.[19][20]
73–63 BCE: TheRoman Republic extends its influence into the region in theThird Mithridatic War. During the war,Armenian KingTigranes the Great takes control of Syria and prepares to invadeJudea andJerusalem but has to retreat following an invasion of Armenia byLucullus.[21] However, this period is believed to have resulted in the first settlement of Armenians in Jerusalem.[22] According to Armenian historianMovses Khorenatsi writing in c. 482 CE, Tigranes captured Jerusalem and deported Hyrcanus to Armenia, however most scholars deem this account to be incorrect.[23][24]
Events from theNew Testament (Canonical Gospels,Acts of the Apostles, Epistles -Pauline andCatholic- and theBook of Revelation) offer a narrative regarded by most Christians as Holy Scripture. Much of the narrative lacks historical anchors and Christianapologists have tried to calculate a historical chronology of events without reaching consensual conclusions. All such events and dates listed here are presented under this reservation, and are generally lacking non-sectarian scholarly recognition. They are marked in the list with a cross [†].
37–40 CE: "Crisis underGaius Caligula" – a financial crisis throughout the empire results in the "first open break" betweenJews and Romans even though problems were already evident during theCensus of Quirinius in 6 CE and underSejanus before 31 CE.[37]
45–46 CE [†]: After a famine in Judea,Paul andBarnabas provide support to the Jerusalem poor fromAntioch.
57 CE [†]:Paul of Tarsus is arrested in Jerusalem after he is attacked by a mob in the Temple (Acts 21:26–39) and defends his actions before asanhedrin.
64–68 CE:Nero persecutes Jews and Christians throughout theRoman Empire.
138: Restrictions over Christian presence in the city are relaxed after Hadrian dies andAntoninus Pius becomes emperor.
195: SaintNarcissus of Jerusalem presides over a council held by the bishops of Palestine in Caesarea, and decrees thatEaster is to be always kept on a Sunday, and not with theJewish Passover.
324–325: EmperorConstantine wins theCivil Wars of the Tetrarchy and reunites the empire. Within a few months, theFirst Council of Nicaea (first worldwide Christian council) confirms status ofAelia Capitolina as a patriarchate.[42] A significant wave of Christian immigration to the city begins. This is the date on which the city is generally taken to have been renamed Jerusalem.
c. 325: The ban on Jews entering the city remains in force, but they are allowed to enter once a year to pray onTisha B'Av.
363: TheGalilee earthquake of 363 together with the re-establishment of Christianity's dominance following the death of Julian the Apostate at theBattle of Samarra ends attempts to build a third Temple in Jerusalem.
617: Jewish governorNehemiah ben Hushiel is killed by a mob of Christian citizens, three years after he is appointed. TheSassanids quell the uprising and appoint a Christian governor to replace him.
620: Muhammad's night journey (Isra and Mi'raj) to Jerusalem, according to Islamic belief.[48]
629: Byzantine emperorHeraclius retakes Jerusalem, after the decisive defeat of the Sassanid Empire at theBattle of Nineveh (627). Heraclius personally returns the True Cross to the city.[50]
661:Mu'awiya I is ordained as Caliph of the Islamic world in Jerusalem following the assassination ofAli inKufa, ending theFirst Fitna and marking the beginning of theUmayyad Empire.
677: According to interpretations ofMaronite historianTheophilus of Edessa,Mardaites (possibly ancestors of today'sMaronites) took over a swathe of land including Jerusalem on behalf of the Byzantine Emperor, who was simultaneously repelling the Umayyads in theSiege of Constantinople (674–678). However, this has been contested as a mistranslation of the words "Holy City".[52][53]
744–750: Riots in Jerusalem and other majorSyrian cities during the reign ofMarwan II, quelled in 745–46. The Umayyad army is subsequently defeated in 750 at theBattle of the Zab by theAbbasids, who take control of the entire empire including Jerusalem. Marwan II flees via Jerusalem but is assassinated inEgypt.
813: CaliphAl-Ma'mun visits Jerusalem and undertakes extensive renovations to the Dome of the Rock.
878:Ahmad ibn Tulun, ruler of Egypt and founder of theTulunid dynasty, conquers Jerusalem and most ofSyria, four years after declaring Egypt's independence from theAbbasid court inBaghdad.
904: TheAbbasids regain control of Jerusalem after invading Syria, and the army of Tulunid EmirHarun retreats to Egypt where theTulunids were defeated the following year.
939/944:Muhammad ibn Tughj al-Ikhshid, governor of Abbasid Egypt andPalestine, is given the title al-Ikhshid by Abbasid CaliphAr-Radi, and in 944 is named hereditary governor of his lands.
946: Muhammad ibn Tughj al-Ikhshid dies.Abu al-Misk Kafur becomes de facto ruler of the Ikhshidid lands.
951–978:Estakhri,Traditions of Countries andIbn Hawqal,The Face of the Earth write ofJund Filistin:"Its capital and largest town isRamla, but the Holy City of Jerusalem comes very near this last in size", and of Jerusalem:"It is a city perched high on the hills: and you have to go up to it from all sides. In all Jerusalem there is no running water, excepting what comes from springs, that can be used to irrigate the fields, and yet it is the most fertile portion of Filastin."[56]
966:Al-Muqaddasi leaves Jerusalem to begin his 20-year geographical study, writing in detail about Jerusalem in hisDescription of Syria, Including Palestine[56]
968:Abu al-Misk Kafur dies and is also buried in Jerusalem. TheIkhshidid government divides and theFatimids prepare for invasion of Egypt and Palestine.
1030: Caliph Ali az-Zahir authorizes the rebuilding of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and other Christian churches in a treaty with Byzantine EmperorRomanos III Argyros.
1042: Byzantine EmperorConstantine IX Monomachos pays for the restoration of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, authorized by CaliphMa'ad al-Mustansir Billah. Al-Mustansir authorizes a number of other Christian buildings, including theMuristan hospital, church and monastery built by a group of Amalfian merchants in c. 1050.
1073: Jerusalem is captured by under Turcoman EmirAtsiz ibn Uwaq, who was advancing south into the weakeningFatimid Empire following the decisive defeat of theByzantine army at theBattle of Manzikert fought against theGreat Seljuk Empire two years previously and a devastating six-year famine in Egypt between 1067 and 1072.[58]
1077: Jerusalem revolts against the rule of Atsiz while he is fighting the Fatimid Empire inEgypt. On his return to Jerusalem, Atsiz retakes the city and massacres the local population.[59] Not long after, Atsiz is executed byTutush I, governor of Syria under his brother,Seljuk leaderMalik-Shah I. Tutush I appointsArtuq bin Ekseb, later founder of the Artuqid dynasty, as governor.
1091–1095: Artuq bin Ekseb dies in 1091, and is succeeded as governor by his sonsIlghazi andSokmen. Malik Shah dies in 1092, and the Seljuk Empire splits into smaller warring states. Control of Jerusalem is disputed betweenDuqaq andRadwan after the death of their father Tutush I in 1095. The ongoing rivalry weakens Syria.
1100:Dagobert of Pisa becomesLatin Patriarch of Jerusalem. Godfrey of Bouillon promises to turn over the rule of Jerusalem to the Papacy once the crusaders captureEgypt. The invasion of Egypt did not occur as Godfrey died shortly thereafter.Baldwin I was proclaimed the firstKing of Jerusalem after politically outmanoeuvering Dagobert.
1131:Melisende became Queen of Jerusalem, later acting as regent for her son between 1153 and 1161 while he was on campaign. She was the eldest daughter of King Baldwin II of Jerusalem, and the Armenian princessMorphia of Melitene.
The Crusader defeat at theBattle of Hattin leads to the end of the First Crusader Kingdom (1099–1187). During the Second Crusader Kingdom (1192–1291), theCrusaders can only gain a foothold in Jerusalem on a limited scale, twice through treaties (access rights in 1192 after theTreaty of Jaffa; partial control 1229–39 after theTreaty of Jaffa and Tell Ajul), and again for a last time between 1241 and 1244.[61]
Jerusalem under theAyyubid dynasty after the death of Saladin, 1193The Bahri Mamluk Dynasty 1250–1382
1193:Mosque of Omar built under Saladin outside theChurch of the Holy Sepulchre, commemoratingUmar the Great's decision to pray outside the church so as not to set a precedent and thereby endanger the Church's status as a Christian site.
1219:Jacques de Vitry writes his magnum opus Historia Hierosolymitana.
1229–1244: From 1229 to 1244, Jerusalem peacefully reverted to Christian control as a result of a 1229 Treaty agreed between the crusadingHoly Roman Emperor Frederick II andal-Kamil, the AyyubidSultan ofEgypt, that ended theSixth Crusade.[62][63][64][65][66] The Ayyubids retained control of the Muslim holy places, and Arab sources suggest that Frederick was not permitted to restore Jerusalem's fortifications.
1239:An-Nasir Dawud, Ayyubid Emir ofKerak, briefly occupies the city and destroys its fortifications before withdrawing to Kerak.
1240–1244: An-Nasir Dawud competes with his cousinAs-Salih Ayyub, who had allied with theCrusaders, for control of the region.
1244:Siege of Jerusalem (1244) – In order to permanently retake the city from rival breakaway Abbasid rulers who had allied with the Crusaders, As-Salih Ayyub summoned a huge mercenary army ofKhwarezmians, who were available for hire following the defeat of theKhwarazm Shah dynasty by the Mongols ten years earlier.[67] The Khwarezmians could not be controlled by As-Salih Ayyub, and destroyed the city. A few months later, the two sides met again at the decisiveBattle of La Forbie, marking the end of the Crusader influence in the region.
1246: The Ayyubids regain control of the city after the Khwarezmians are defeated byAl-Mansur Ibrahim atLake Homs.
1248–1250: TheSeventh Crusade, launched in reaction to the 1244 destruction of Jerusalem, fails afterLouis IX of France is defeated and captured by Ayyubid SultanTuranshah at theBattle of Fariskur in 1250. TheMamluk Sultanate is indirectly created in Egypt as a result, as Turanshah is killed by hisMamluk soldiers a month after the battle and his stepmotherShajar al-Durr becomesSultana of Egypt with the MamlukAybak asAtabeg. The Ayyubids relocate toDamascus, where they continue to control the rump of their empire including Jerusalem for a further ten years.
1260: The Army of theMongol Empire reaches Palestine for the first time:
1267:Nachmanides goes to Jerusalem and prays at theWestern Wall. Reported to have found only two Jewish families in the city.
1300: Further Mongol raids into Palestine underGhazan andMulay. Jerusalem held by the Mongols for four months (seeNinth Crusade).Hetham II, King of Armenia, was allied to the Mongols and is reported to have visited Jerusalem where he donated his sceptre to the Armenian Cathedral.
1482: The visitingDominican priestFelix Fabri described Jerusalem as "a collection of all manner of abominations". As "abominations" he listed Saracens, Greeks, Syrians, Jacobites, Abyssinians, Nestorians, Armenians, Gregorians, Maronites, Turcomans, Bedouins, Assassins, a sect possibly Druzes, Mamelukes, and "the most accursed of all", Jews. Only the Latin Christians "long with all their hearts for Christian princes to come and subject all the country to the authority of the Church of Rome".
1517: Sultan Selim I makes a pilgrimage to Jerusalem on his way to the final defeat of the Mamluks at theBattle of Ridaniya (Cairo). Selim proclaims himselfCaliph of the Islamic world.
1518:Abu Ghosh clan sent to Jerusalem to restore order and to secure the pilgrimage route betweenJaffa and Jerusalem.
1624: Following theBattle of Anjar,Druze princeFakhr-al-Din II is appointed the "Emir of Arabistan" by the Ottomans to govern the region from Aleppo to Jerusalem. He toured his new provinces in the same year.[72]
1663–1665:Sabbatai Zevi, founder of theSabbateans, preaches in Jerusalem before travelling back to his nativeSmyrna where he proclaimed himself theMessiah.
1700:Judah the Pious with 1000 followers settle in Jerusalem.
1703–1705: TheNaqib al-Ashraf revolt, during which the city's inhabitants revolted against heavy taxation. It was ultimately put down two years later by Jurji Muhammad Pasha.[73]
1705: Restrictions imposed against the Jews.
1744: The English reference bookModern history or the present state of all nations stated that "Jerusalem is still reckoned the capital city of Palestine".[74]
1771–1772: The renegade Christian Mamluk ruler of EgyptAli Bey al-Kabir temporarily took control of Jerusalem with 30,000 troops, together withZahir al-Umar andRussia (who had also instigated a Greek revolt as part of theRusso-Turkish War (1768–74)).
Map of Jerusalem in 1883"Independent"Vilayet of Jerusalem shown within Ottoman administrative divisions in the Levant after the reorganisation of 1887–88
1838–1857: The first European consulates are opened in the city (e.g.Britain 1838).
1839–1840: RabbiJudah Alkalai publishes "The Pleasant Paths" and "The Peace of Jerusalem", urging the return of European Jews toJerusalem andPalestine.
1840: Afirman is issued byIbrahim Pasha forbidding Jews to pave the passageway in front of theWestern Wall. It also cautioned them against "raising their voices and displaying their books there."
1840: The Ottoman Turks retake the city—with help from the English (Lord Palmerston).
1852: SultanAbdülmecid I published a firman setting out the rights and responsibility of each community at theChurch of the Holy Sepulchre. The firman is known as the "Status quo" and its protocol is still in force today.
1853–1854: Under military and financial pressure fromNapoleon III, Sultan Abdulmecid I accepts a treaty confirmingFrance and theRoman Catholic Church as the supreme authority in the Holy Land with control over the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. This decision contravened the 1774 treaty with Russia, and led to theCrimean War.
1857–1890: TheBatei Mahse, two-storey buildings, are built in the Jewish Quarter by the Batei Mahse Company, an organization of Dutch and German Jews[78]
1860: The first Jewish neighbourhood (Mishkenot Sha'ananim) is built outside the Old City walls, in an area later known asYemin Moshe, by Sir Moses Montefiore andJudah Touro, as part of the process to "leave the walls" (Hebrew:היציאה מן החומות).[79][80]
1868: Bahá’u’lláh is exiled to Akko fortress by the Ottoman Turks, with about 70 followers in His retinue. He calls for the return of the Jews.Mahane Israel becomes the second Jewish neighbourhood outside the walls after it was built byMaghrebi Jews from the Old City.
1869:Nahalat Shiv'a becomes the third Jewish neighbourhood outside the walls, built as a cooperative effort.
1872:Beit David becomes the fourth Jewish neighbourhood outside the walls, built as analmshouse.
1873–1875:Mea She'arim is built (the fifth Jewish neighbourhood outside the walls).
1877: Jerusalem representativeYousef al-Khalidi is appointed President of the Chamber of Deputies in the short-lived first Ottoman parliament following the accession ofAbdul Hamid II and the declaration of theKanun-ı Esasî.
1881:Eliezer Ben-Yehuda moves to Jerusalem to begin his development of modernHebrew to replace the languages used by Jews who madealiyah from various regions of the world.
1882: TheFirst Aliyah results in 25,000–35,000Zionist immigrants entering the Palestine region.
1887–1888: Ottoman Palestine divided into the districts of Jerusalem,Nablus andAcre—Jerusalem District is "autonomous", i.e. attached directly toIstanbul.
1892: Bahá’u’lláh passes away 29 May, succeeded by His eldest Son ‘Abdu’l-Bahá.
1897:First Zionist Congress at which Jerusalem was discussed as the possible capital of a future Jewish state. In response,Abdul Hamid II initiates policy of sending members of his own palace staff to govern province of Jerusalem.
Zones of French and British influence and control proposed in theSykes–Picot AgreementGeneral Allenby enters Jerusalem on foot out of respect for the Holy City, 11 December 1917
28 May: The Jewish Quarter of the Old City falls to Arab Legion under British officerGlubb Pasha; synagogues are destroyed and Jews evacuated.Mordechai Weingarten discusses surrender terms withAbdullah el Tell.
26 July:West Jerusalem is proclaimed territory of Israel.
17 September:Folke Bernadotte, the United Nations' mediator in Palestine and the first official mediator in the UN's history, is killed byLehi assassins.
28 June: Israel declares Jerusalem unified and announces free access to holy sites of all religions.
1968: Israel starts rebuilding theJewish Quarter, confiscating 129 dunams (0.129 km2) of land which had made up the Jewish Quarter before 1948.[89] 6000 residents and 437 shops are evicted.[90]
2008: Israeli Sephardic Religious PartyShas refuses to form part of the government without a guarantee that there will be no negotiations that will lead to a partition of Jerusalem.
2017: December:US presidentDonald Trump recognizes Jerusalem as thecapital of Israel; this sparks protest by many Palestinians and other Muslims in the region.[91]
2018: The United States, followed byGuatemala andParaguay become the first three countries to open embassies to Israel in Jerusalem.[92]
Graphical overview of Jerusalem's historical periods
^abcdeSlavik, Diane. 2001.Cities through Time: Daily Life in Ancient and Modern Jerusalem. Geneva, Illinois: Runestone Press, p. 60.ISBN978-0-8225-3218-7
^Mazar, Benjamin. 1975.The Mountain of the Lord. Garden City, New York: Doubleday & Company, Inc., p. 45.ISBN0-385-04843-2
^Crouch, Carly Lorraine (1 October 2014).Israel and the Assyrians: Deuteronomy, the Succession Treaty of Esarhaddon, and the Nature of Subversion. SBL Press.ISBN978-1-62837-026-3.Judah's reason(s) for submitting to Assyrian hegemony, at least superficially, require explanation, while at the same time indications of its read-but-disguised resistance to Assyria must be uncovered... The political and military sprawl of the Assyrian empire during the late Iron Age in the southern Levant, especially toward its outer borders, is not quite akin to the single dominating hegemony envisioned by most discussions of hegemony and subversion. In the case of Judah it should be reiterated that Judah was always a vassal state, semi-autonomous and on the periphery of the imperial system, it was never a fully-integrated provincial territory. The implications of this distinction for Judah's relationship with and experience of the Assyrian empire should not be underestimated; studies of the expression of Assyria's cultural and political powers in its provincial territories and vassal states have revealed notable differences in the degree of active involvement in different types of territories. Indeed, the mechanics of the Assyrian empire were hardly designed for direct control over all its vassals' internal activities, provided that a vassal produced the requisite tribute and did not provoke trouble among its neighbors, the level of direct involvement from Assyria remained relatively low. For the entirety of its experience of the Assyrian empire, Judah functioned as a vassal state, rather than a province under direct Assyrian rule, thereby preserving at least a certain degree of autonomy, especially in its internal affairs. Meanwhile, the general atmosphere of Pax Assyriaca in the southern Levant minimized the necessity of (and opportunities for) external conflict. That Assyrians, at least in small numbers, were present in Judah is likely - probably a qipu and his entourage who, if the recent excavators of Ramat Rahel are correct, perhaps resided just outside the capital - but there is far less evidence than is commonly assumed to suggest that these left a direct impression of Assyria on this small vassal state... The point here is that, despite the wider context of Assyria's political and economic power in the ancient Near East in general and the southern Levant in particular, Judah remained a distinguishable and semi-independent southern Levantine state,part of but not subsumed by the Assyrian empire and, indeed, benefitting from it in significant ways.
^http://studentreader.com/jerusalem/#Edict-of-Cyrus Student ReaderJerusalem: "When Cyrus captured Babylon, he immediately issued the Edict of Cyrus, a decree that those who had been exiled by the Babylonians could return to their homelands and start rebuilding."
^Richard Gottheil; Gotthard Deutsch;Martin A. Meyer; Joseph Jacobs; M. Franco (1906)."Jerusalem".Jewish Encyclopedia. Retrieved23 September 2020 – via JewishEncyclopedia.com.
^Josephus,Antiquities of the Jews, Book XI, Chapter 7. William Whiston edition, London 1737. Accessed 23 September 2020.
^"And when he had ordained five councils (συνέδρια), he distributed the nation into the same number of parts. So these councils governed the people; the first was at Jerusalem, the second at Gadara, the third at Amathus, the fourth atJericho, and the fifth at Sepphoris in Galilee."Josephus,Ant. xiv 54:
^"Josephus uses συνέδριον for the first time in connection with the decree of the Roman governor of Syria, Gabinius (57 BCE), who abolished the constitution and the then existing form of government of Palestine and divided the country into five provinces, at the head of each of which a sanhedrin was placed ("Ant." xiv 5, § 4)." viaJewish Encyclopedia: Sanhedrin:
^H.H. Ben-Sasson,A History of the Jewish People, pp. 247–248: "Consequently, the province of Judea may be regarded as a satellite of Syria, though, in view of the measure of independence left to its governor in domestic affairs, it would be wrong to say that in the Julio-Claudian era Judea was legally part of the province of Syria."
^A History of the Jewish People, H.H. Ben-Sasson editor, 1976, p. 247: "When Judea was converted into a Roman province [in 6 CE, p. 246], Jerusalem ceased to be the administrative capital of the country. The Romans moved the governmental residence and military headquarters to Caesarea. The centre of government was thus removed from Jerusalem, and the administration became increasingly based on inhabitants of the Hellenistic cities (Sebaste, Caesarea and others)."
^John P. Meier'sA Marginal Jew, vol. 1, ch. 11; also H.H. Ben-Sasson,A History of the Jewish People, Harvard University Press, 1976,ISBN0-674-39731-2, p. 251: "But after the first agitation (which occurred in the wake of the first Roman census) had faded out, we no longer hear of bloodshed in Judea until the days of Pilate."
^Buckley, Jorunn Jacobsen (2010). Turning the Tables on Jesus: The Mandaean View. InHorsley, Richard (March 2010).Christian Origins. Fortress Press.ISBN978-1-4514-1664-0.(pp94-111). Minneapolis: Fortress Press
^Drower, Ethel Stefana (1953).The Haran Gawaita and the Baptism of Hibil-Ziwa. Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana.
^H.H. Ben-Sasson,A History of the Jewish People, Harvard University Press, 1976,ISBN0-674-39731-2,The Crisis Under Gaius Caligula, pp. 254–256: "The reign of Gaius Caligula (37–41) witnessed the first open break between the Jews and theJulio-Claudian empire. Until then—if one acceptsSejanus' heyday and the trouble caused by thecensus after Archelaus' banishment—there was usually an atmosphere of understanding between the Jews and the empire ... These relations deteriorated seriously during Caligula's reign, and, though after his death the peace was outwardly re-established, considerable bitterness remained on both sides. ... Caligula ordered that a golden statue of himself be set up in theTemple in Jerusalem. ... Only Caligula's death, at the hands of Roman conspirators (41), prevented the outbreak of a Jewish-Roman war that might well have spread to the entireEast."
^Christopher Mackay. "Ancient Rome a Military and Political History" 2007: 230
^Beckles Willson, Rachel (2013).Orientalism and Musical Mission: Palestine and the West. Cambridge University Press. p. 146.ISBN978-1-107-03656-7.
^Schaff'sSeven Ecumenical Councils: First Nicaea: Canon VII: "Since custom and ancient tradition have prevailed that the Bishop of Aelia [i.e., Jerusalem] should be honored, let him, saving its due dignity to the Metropolis, have the next place of honor."; "It is very hard to determine just what was the "precedence" granted to the Bishop of Aelia, nor is it clear which is the "metropolis" referred to in the last clause. Most writers, includingHefele,Balsamon,Aristenus and BeveridgeWilliam Beveridge?] consider it to beCæsarea; whileZonaras thinks Jerusalem to be intended, a view recently adopted and defended by Fuchs; others again suppose it isAntioch that is referred to."
^Browning, Robert. 1978.The Emperor Julian. Berkeley, California: University of California Press, p. 176.ISBN0-520-03731-6
^Horn, Cornelia B.; Robert R. Phenix, Jr. 2008.The Lives of Peter the Iberian, Theodosius of Jerusalem, and the Monk Romanus. Atlanta, Georgia: Society of Biblical Literature, p. lxxxviii.ISBN978-1-58983-200-8
^Singh, Nagendra. 2002. "International Encyclopedia of Islamic Dynasties"'
^Bosworth, Clifford Edmund. 2007.Historic Cities of the Islamic World
^Runciman, Steven. 1951.A History of the Crusades: Volume 1 The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. New York, New York: Cambridge University Press, pp. 279–290.ISBN0-521-06161-X
^Larry H. Addington (1990).The Patterns of War Through the Eighteenth Century. Midland book.Indiana University Press. p. 59.ISBN978-0-253-20551-3.... in the Sixth Crusade, Frederick II ...concluded a treaty with the Saracens in 1229 that placed Jerusalem under Christian control but allowed Muslim and Christian alike freedom of access to the religious shrines of the city. ... Within fifteen years of Frederick's departure from the Holy Land, the Khwarisimian Turks, successors to the Seljuks, rampaged through Syria and Palestine, capturing Jerusalem in 1244. (Jerusalem would not be ruled again by Christians until the British occupied it in December 1917, during World War I.)
^Fisk and King, 'Description of Jerusalem,' inThe Christian Magazine, July 1824, p. 220. Mendon Association, 1824.
^Shvarts, Shifra. "Health Services in Eretz Israel (Palestine) in the Nineteenth Century."The Workers' Health Fund in Eretz Israel: Kupat Holim, 1911-1937, Boydell & Brewer, 2002, pp. 7–19. JSTOR,http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7722/j.ctt7zsv0p.9. Accessed 12 Oct. 2022.
^Segev, Tom (1999).One Palestine, Complete. Metropolitan Books. pp. 295–313.ISBN0-8050-4848-0. The group assembled at the Wall shouting "the Wall is ours". They raised theJewish national flag and sangHatikvah, theIsraeli anthem. The authorities had been notified of the march in advance and provided a heavy police escort in a bid to prevent any incidents. Rumours spread that the youths had attacked local residents and had cursed the name ofMuhammad.
^"Christians in the Holy Land" Edited by Michael Prior and William Taylor.ISBN0-905035-32-1. p. 104: Albert Aghazarian "The significance of Jerusalem to Christians". This writer states that "Jews did not own any more than 20% of this quarter" prior to 1948
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